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2nd millennium BC

Hittites — an Indo-European people of the Bronze Age who lived in Asia Minor, where they founded the Hittite Kingdom. In the last centuries of their existence, the Hittites created a powerful Neo-Hittite state, which under Suppiluliuma I significantly extended its influence in the Middle East and entered into military confrontation with the regional hegemon — Egypt. Under Thutmose III, the Hittites still sent rich gifts to the Egyptians, but from Pharaoh Horemheb to Ramesses II (14th-13th centuries BC), the two rival powers waged wars for control over Syria (part of which was the Battle of Kadesh). After the destruction of the Hittite Kingdom under the blows of the "Sea Peoples" (during the so-called "Bronze Age collapse"), the Hittite people fell into decline. Separate Neo-Hittite states continued to exist on the periphery of the Hittite Kingdom in Syria and southern Anatolia until they were defeated by the Assyrians.

The Hittites (Hittaeans) are mentioned several times in the Bible. The ancestral homeland of the Hittites was presumably the Balkans, which they left at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. L. A. Gindin believes that the Hittites were the first Indo-European people (Sredny Stog culture) to settle in Bulgaria and Greece as early as the 4th millennium BC, and were then pushed into Asia Minor by the second wave of Indo-European invasion of the Balkans. The Hittites were strongly influenced by the local autochthonous substrate of the Hattians and, to a lesser extent, the Hurrians (Mitanni). Babylonian civilization also influenced Hittite culture, from which they borrowed cuneiform writing. The Hittites themselves influenced the culture of all their neighbors.

The Hittite self-name Nesili or Kanesili came from the city of Nesa (Kanish), while the term Hatti was used to designate the inhabitants of the Hittite Kingdom, as well as the more ancient inhabitants of these lands — the Hattians. In 1915, Bedřich Hrozný proved the Indo-European origin of Hittite and Luwian — the two main closely related written languages of the Hittite Kingdom from the Anatolian branch. Later it was established that from these languages came Lycian, Carian, Lydian, Sidetic, and a number of other languages of Asia Minor of the 1st millennium BC, which did not survive the era of Roman conquest. The Hittites used two writing systems for their records: an adapted version of Assyro-Babylonian cuneiform (for early texts in Hittite) and an original syllabo-ideographic script.

Various animals were offered in sacrifices. Goats and sheep were common animals. A bull was designated as a good sacrifice. Only pigs were not allowed to be sacrificed or eaten, as they were considered unclean animals. Children were also sacrificed. They were wrapped in animal skins and the parents threw them from above into the courtyard, shouting that they were not their children but bulls.

VARIANT NAMES: Russian Hittites, Hittaeans, English Hittites, Ancient Greek Χετταΐοι, self-name Nesili, Kanesili, Hebrew ‏חתי‏‎‎‎ (Hty), ‏בני-חת‏‎‎‎ (Bny-ht).


Cultures of 1500 BC

1500 BC

States:
1 – Egypt (territory: 1,079,000 sq. km, population – 8,000,000, capital – Men-nefer, ruler – Pharaoh Thutmose III).
2 – Amurru (confederation of tribes).
3 – Ashtata.
4 – Yamhad (territory: 14,000 sq. km, capital – Aleppo, ruler – Indrimi).
5 – Kassite Babylonia (territory: 354,000 sq. km, population – 3,000,000, capital – Babylon, ruler – lugal Burna-Buriash I).
6 – Sealand (territory: 77,000 sq. km, population – 300,000).
7 – Chaldea (Semitic Arabic-speaking tribes from Central Arabia).
8 – Magan (relict of Dravidian tribes that once inhabited all of Eastern and Northeastern Arabia).
9 – Elam (territory: 117,000 sq. km, capital – Susa, ruler – sukkal-mah Kuter-Nahhunte II).
10 – Ashur (territory: 29,000 sq. km, population – 200,000, capital – Ashur, ruler – Puzur-Ashur III). Strongly dependent on Hanigalbat.
11 – Hanigalbat – confederation of kingdoms (Hurrians led by an Aryan dynasty of Mitanni) (territory: 353,000 sq. km, population – 1,500,000, ruler – Shuttarna I).
12 – Kizzuwatna – ethnically a mixture of Hurrians and incoming Luwians (territory: 74,000 sq. km, capital – Kummanni, ruler – Isputahsu).
13 – Hapalla.
14 – Arzawa (Luwians).
15 – Millawanda (although there is a hypothesis that Millawanda is identical to later Miletus).
16 – Lukka (probably pre-Indo-European population).
17 – Hittites (territory: 185,000 sq. km, population – 250,000, capital – Hattusa, ruler – tabarna Tahurwaili).
Kaskian tribes (18-21), who lived in Asia Minor before the arrival of the Hitto-Luwians and are related to modern Adyghe and Abkhazians.
18 – Sukhma
19 – Haysa
20 – Halila
21 – Ihhupita
22 – Pala – kingdom of a people related to the Hittites.
23 – Troy (territory: 121,000 sq. km, capital – Troy (Wilusa)).
24 – Crete – ethnically newcomers from Asia Minor related to the pre-Hittite population – the Hattians (territory: 18,000 sq. km, population – 1,000,000, capital – Knossos).
25 – Achaean Greece – city-states on the eve of the Santorini catastrophe (territory: 58,000 sq. km, population – 500,000).

Tribal unions:
Iberians and other descendants of the Bell Beaker culture expansion (26-41).
26 – El Argar culture (Iberian tribes).
27 – Rhône culture (Ligurian tribes).
28 – Nuragic culture (Sardinian tribes).
29 – Corsicans.
30 – Sicani.
31 – Armorican culture (possibly the tribes of the Osismii, who came from Britain and are related in origin to the tribes of the Wessex culture).
32 – Wessex culture.
33 – Food Vessel culture and other British cultures (the earliest yet non-Celticized Picts).
34 – Irish Bell Beaker cultures.
35 – Adlerberg culture.
36 – Únětice culture.
37 – Otomani culture.
38 – Pecica culture.
39 – Gârla Mare culture.
40 – Verbicioara culture.
41 – other Bell Beaker cultures (possibly the tribes of the Osismii).

Chassey-Capsian tribes (42-46)
42 – SUM culture – Seine-Marne-Oise.
43 – Lake dwelling culture.
44 – Polada culture.
45 – Remedello-Terramare cultures (the earliest Rhaeto-Etruscans, not yet influenced by Asia Minor influences).
46 – Artenacian culture.

Japhetic tribes of the Mediterranean (47-49).
47 – Siculi.
48 – South Italian cultures.
49 – Bubanj-Hum and other Balkan cultures, pushed southwest by migrations of Iberians and Indo-Europeans. In Epirus at this time one of the Pelasgian tribes was based (Pelasgians – a non-Indo-European tribe of the Cycladic culture).

Japhetic tribes of the Caucasus (50-57).
50 – Colchian culture (initially Japhetic, but after the 12th century BC, assimilation of the primary Colchians by ancient Georgian tribes occurs).
51 – Central Caucasian culture – heir of the Koban culture.
52 – Kayakent-Khorochoev culture (ancient Dagestani tribes, and possibly the earliest Khazars).
53 – Kuban culture (ancient Adyghe tribes).
54 – North Caucasian culture.
55 – Kizil-Koba culture (Tauri).
56 – Catacomb culture (essentially a remnant of the Yamnaya tribes on their homeland, heavily assimilated by Caucasian tribes coming from the south during the heyday of the Maykop civilization).
57 – Balanovo culture (whose tribes advanced far north and came under strong influence of the Fatyanovo and Abashevo tribes of Central Russia, but preserved the racial type that can be traced in the region until the 9th century BC).

Indo-European tribes
58 – Single Grave culture (the earliest branch of the Germanic peoples).
Baltic tribes (59-66)
59 – Saxo-Thuringian culture.
60 – Oder culture.
61 – Złota culture.
62 – Baltic culture.
63 – Middle Dnieper culture.
64 – Fatyanovo culture.
65 – Boat Axe culture of Finland.
66 – Boat Axe culture of Sweden.
67 – Tumulus culture (possibly the tribes of the Veneti).
68 – Komarov culture (originates from the Corded Ware cultures of the north and serves as a link between these cultures and the Tumulus culture, but post-Trypillian influences are also strong; possibly the earliest Slavs).

Ancient Yamnaya tribes (remnants of the once vast Yamnaya community) (69-73)
69 – Monteoru culture (possibly ancient Thracian tribes).
70 – Tei culture.
71 – Maryanovskaya culture.
72 – Witenberg culture.
73 – Füzesabony culture.
74 – Dorian tribes of the Greeks.
75 – Phrygian tribes.

Post-Trypillian tribes (Trypillia – initially a Japhetic civilization, in the last period of its existence assimilated by Yamnaya tribes) (76-79).
76 – Subcarpathian culture.
77 – Strzyżów culture.
78 – Multi-roller pottery culture.
79 – Kostish culture.

Iranian tribes (80-82)
80 – Abashevo culture.
81 – Pozdnyakovo culture (originating from Abashevo).
82 – Sapalli culture (Indo-Iranian tribes related to Grey Ware).
83 – Poltavka culture (one of the branches of the Ancient Yamnaya community, ancestors of the Srubnaya tribes of the Cimmerians).

Tocharian tribes (84-87)
84 – Andronovo cultural community.
85 – Tazabagyab culture.
86 – Tarim mummies culture.
87 – Cherkaskul culture.
88 – Grey Ware culture (Indo-Aryan tribes).

Kartvelian tribes (89-91)
89 – Samtavro culture.
90 – Trialeti culture.
91 – Eastern Caucasian culture.

Dravidian tribes
92 – Dashla culture.
93 – Harappan cultures.

Finnic tribes (94-99)
94 – Asbestos ware culture.
95 – Porous ware culture.
96 – Textile ware culture.
97 – Choinovtin culture.
98 – Kiukainen culture.
99 – Prikazan culture.

Samoyedic tribes (100-102)
100 – Samus culture.
101 – Krotovo culture.
102 – Sartynia culture.

Semitic tribes (103-107)
103 – Midian.
104 – Suti tribes.
105 – Aramean tribes.
106 – various Arab tribes.
107 – Ethio-Semitic tribes.

Bronze production in 1500 BC:
Egypt – 350 tons.
Mesopotamia – 1,400 tons.


Materials:

586 BC — 79 AD. Exodus of Jews to Mtskheta
Ethnogenesis of the Abkhazians. D.A. Arshba, 2015