586 BC
Jews in Georgia — according to Georgian historical tradition, the first Jews arrived in Georgia after the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (586 BC). This tradition likely reflects the arrival of Jews from Babylonia to Georgia, the southern part of which became part of the ancient Persian Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC (558–330 BC). Apparently, from southern Georgia, the Jews gradually spread to other regions of the country. Information from Georgian historical sources about the presence of Jews in Mtskheta (the ancient capital of the eastern Georgian state of Kartli) in the first centuries AD is confirmed by archaeological finds. Among the first disseminators of Christianity in Georgia in the early 4th century are mentioned the Jew Evyatar (Abiatar) from Urbnisi and his sister Sidonia, canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church, and the Jewish woman Salome — the author of the biography of Nina of Cappadocia, the baptizer of Georgia. Georgian sources report the arrival of Jews in Western Georgia in the 6th century, apparently from Byzantium, and the subsequent migration of three thousand Jews from there to Eastern Georgia. These data apparently reflect the mass flight of Jews from the western regions of Georgia, which were under Byzantine rule (where Jews suffered severe persecution in the 6th century), to the southeastern regions of Georgia, which were under Persian rule (who at that time were tolerant towards Jews). There is also evidence of Jewish migrations to Georgia from Armenia and Iran. It can be assumed that the toponym אפריקי, mentioned several times in the Babylonian Talmud (e.g., RH 26a; Sanh. 94a; Tamid 32a), should be read as ephirike, that is, Iberica, or Iberia — one of the ancient names of Eastern Georgia, as well as Georgia as a whole.
Genetic Data
With the development of genetics, it has now become possible to directly test the hypotheses put forward. Having analyzed the genetic type of Jews from all major Jewish communities, geneticists came to the unambiguous conclusion that all these communities share a common origin from a people that lived in the region of the Levant, i.e., the Eastern Mediterranean. According to recent studies using various methods (Y-chromosome polymorphism, microsatellite studies, and bead array genotyping), there is a clear genetic connection between the major Jewish communities, including Ashkenazi, Azerbaijani, Georgian, Iranian, Iraqi, Moroccan, Bulgarian, and Turkish Jews. All these communities trace common roots in the Levant. They are closely related to the Samaritans and Druze. Furthermore, they are much more similar to each other than to the neighboring non-Jewish population. It should be noted, however, that Ethiopian and Indian Jews show little genetic similarity to other Jews and strong similarity to the neighboring population, although paternally, Indian Jews are connected to the Levantine population. From this, it can be concluded that these two small groups were indeed formed from descendants of proselytes.
The main divergence between the genotypes of Jewish communities occurred around the 5th century BC — that is, during the Babylonian Exile. At the same time, different groups of Jews have different numbers of proselytes, which can be genetically measured in the population as a whole. Studies have shown that the genotype of Ashkenazi Jews is two-thirds descended from ancient Jews, and about one-third are converts. According to genetic data, the largest part of the additions of this 30% of Ashkenazi Jews consists of representatives of Southern Europe. They joined the Jewish people mainly during late antiquity. Studies have shown that the genotype of all Ashkenazi groups differs sharply from the genotype of all surrounding peoples and has no pronounced connections either with the Slavic genotype or with the Turkic genotype. Since the Khazars are assumed to have been a Turkic people, this also refutes the "Khazar" hypothesis of the origin of the Ashkenazi. Among Jews of Eastern countries, there are fewer additions, namely — about 90% descent from ancient Jews and 10% from converts. The difference between Ashkenazim and other Jewish groups also follows from the "bottleneck effect": the Jewish population of Europe increased more than 100 times over the four centuries between the 15th and 19th centuries, and therefore the Ashkenazim had a very small number of ancestors, which reduced genetic diversity and similarity to other communities.
According to the results of a study published in Nature on Y-chromosome DNA markers transmitted paternally, in most communities, four Middle Eastern haplotypes are mixed in similar proportions: J1, J2, E-M35, and G. Together they make up approximately 60-70%. Each community also contains some proportion of haplotypes not originating from the Middle East. They are specific to the place of residence of the respective community: among Ashkenazim — R1a and I (I1 from Germany or I2 from western Ukraine). Among Moroccans and "pure Sephardim" from Turkey and Bulgaria — R1b. Among Iraqis (and Iranians not listed in the table) — P, Q, and R2. Yemenite Jews originate from places where >70% of Muslims have the J1 haplotype — accordingly, it is represented more among them than in all other communities.
Two communities look completely unlike all the others: Ethiopian and Georgian Jews. Both have almost no J1 haplotype represented. Ethiopian Jews have haplotype A (otherwise common among Khoisan peoples) and variants of E different from M35. Georgian Jews have R1b and variants of E. (It is known, incidentally, that Georgian Jews have no or almost no kohanim.)
The total number of non-Middle Eastern haplotypes in most communities is 20-30%, in Ethiopian and Georgian Jews — 60-75%. It should be noted, however, that both groups are very different from the corresponding local population: among Ethiopian Christians only 13% have A, among Georgians, as we have already said, >40% have G, while among Georgian Jews — <5%.
Khazar Hypothesis
There is no haplogroup in Jewish communities that would be associated with Turkic peoples. In popular literature, this fact is viewed as a "refutation of the Khazar hypothesis." At the same time, it is overlooked that "Turkic peoples" is a linguistic concept, not a genetic one. The Khazars were most likely an autochthonous Eastern European people who adopted the Old Turkic language together with the ruling elite of the descendants of Ashina. It has been shown that Eastern European Jews (especially Levites) are characterized by an increased occurrence of haplogroup R1a1a (alternative names: R-M17, M198), characteristic of some peoples of Europe and Asia, but not of the Middle East. It is perhaps here that the hypothetical "Khazar component" can be traced.
Kohanim
Kohanim should be mentioned separately. They are indeed noticeably different from non-kohanim in the corresponding community. As long as J1 and J2 were not distinguished, it was said that at least 75% of kohanim have a common (paternal) origin. When J1 and J2 were separated, the situation turned out to be less rosy. 51% of Ashkenazi kohanim (in other communities — approximately the same picture) carry haplogroup J1, and 22% — J2. At the same time, almost 30% of Ashkenazi Levites also carry a haplotype common with the European population.
Additional Materials and Sources
Jews in Georgia — according to Georgian historical tradition, the first Jews arrived in Georgia after the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (586 BC). This tradition likely reflects the arrival of Jews from Babylonia to Georgia, the southern part of which became part of the ancient Persian Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC (558–330 BC). Apparently, from southern Georgia, the Jews gradually spread to other regions of the country. Information from Georgian historical sources about the presence of Jews in Mtskheta (the ancient capital of the eastern Georgian state of Kartli) in the first centuries AD is confirmed by archaeological finds. Among the first disseminators of Christianity in Georgia in the early 4th century are mentioned the Jew Evyatar (Abiatar) from Urbnisi and his sister Sidonia, canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church, and the Jewish woman Salome — the author of the biography of Nina of Cappadocia, the baptizer of Georgia. Georgian sources report the arrival of Jews in Western Georgia in the 6th century, apparently from Byzantium, and the subsequent migration of three thousand Jews from there to Eastern Georgia. These data apparently reflect the mass flight of Jews from the western regions of Georgia, which were under Byzantine rule (where Jews suffered severe persecution in the 6th century), to the southeastern regions of Georgia, which were under Persian rule (who at that time were tolerant towards Jews). There is also evidence of Jewish migrations to Georgia from Armenia and Iran. It can be assumed that the toponym אפריקי, mentioned several times in the Babylonian Talmud (e.g., RH 26a; Sanh. 94a; Tamid 32a), should be read as ephirike, that is, Iberica, or Iberia — one of the ancient names of Eastern Georgia, as well as Georgia as a whole.
Genetic Data
With the development of genetics, it has now become possible to directly test the hypotheses put forward. Having analyzed the genetic type of Jews from all major Jewish communities, geneticists came to the unambiguous conclusion that all these communities share a common origin from a people that lived in the region of the Levant, i.e., the Eastern Mediterranean. According to recent studies using various methods (Y-chromosome polymorphism, microsatellite studies, and bead array genotyping), there is a clear genetic connection between the major Jewish communities, including Ashkenazi, Azerbaijani, Georgian, Iranian, Iraqi, Moroccan, Bulgarian, and Turkish Jews. All these communities trace common roots in the Levant. They are closely related to the Samaritans and Druze. Furthermore, they are much more similar to each other than to the neighboring non-Jewish population. It should be noted, however, that Ethiopian and Indian Jews show little genetic similarity to other Jews and strong similarity to the neighboring population, although paternally, Indian Jews are connected to the Levantine population. From this, it can be concluded that these two small groups were indeed formed from descendants of proselytes.
- Y-DNA haplogroups of Jews
The main divergence between the genotypes of Jewish communities occurred around the 5th century BC — that is, during the Babylonian Exile. At the same time, different groups of Jews have different numbers of proselytes, which can be genetically measured in the population as a whole. Studies have shown that the genotype of Ashkenazi Jews is two-thirds descended from ancient Jews, and about one-third are converts. According to genetic data, the largest part of the additions of this 30% of Ashkenazi Jews consists of representatives of Southern Europe. They joined the Jewish people mainly during late antiquity. Studies have shown that the genotype of all Ashkenazi groups differs sharply from the genotype of all surrounding peoples and has no pronounced connections either with the Slavic genotype or with the Turkic genotype. Since the Khazars are assumed to have been a Turkic people, this also refutes the "Khazar" hypothesis of the origin of the Ashkenazi. Among Jews of Eastern countries, there are fewer additions, namely — about 90% descent from ancient Jews and 10% from converts. The difference between Ashkenazim and other Jewish groups also follows from the "bottleneck effect": the Jewish population of Europe increased more than 100 times over the four centuries between the 15th and 19th centuries, and therefore the Ashkenazim had a very small number of ancestors, which reduced genetic diversity and similarity to other communities.
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- Prevalence of haplogroup J2 (M172). The common ancestor lived 18.5 ± 3.5 thousand years ago.
According to the results of a study published in Nature on Y-chromosome DNA markers transmitted paternally, in most communities, four Middle Eastern haplotypes are mixed in similar proportions: J1, J2, E-M35, and G. Together they make up approximately 60-70%. Each community also contains some proportion of haplotypes not originating from the Middle East. They are specific to the place of residence of the respective community: among Ashkenazim — R1a and I (I1 from Germany or I2 from western Ukraine). Among Moroccans and "pure Sephardim" from Turkey and Bulgaria — R1b. Among Iraqis (and Iranians not listed in the table) — P, Q, and R2. Yemenite Jews originate from places where >70% of Muslims have the J1 haplotype — accordingly, it is represented more among them than in all other communities.
Two communities look completely unlike all the others: Ethiopian and Georgian Jews. Both have almost no J1 haplotype represented. Ethiopian Jews have haplotype A (otherwise common among Khoisan peoples) and variants of E different from M35. Georgian Jews have R1b and variants of E. (It is known, incidentally, that Georgian Jews have no or almost no kohanim.)
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- Prevalence of haplogroup J1 (M267). The common ancestor lived 15-24 thousand years ago.
The total number of non-Middle Eastern haplotypes in most communities is 20-30%, in Ethiopian and Georgian Jews — 60-75%. It should be noted, however, that both groups are very different from the corresponding local population: among Ethiopian Christians only 13% have A, among Georgians, as we have already said, >40% have G, while among Georgian Jews — <5%.
Khazar Hypothesis
There is no haplogroup in Jewish communities that would be associated with Turkic peoples. In popular literature, this fact is viewed as a "refutation of the Khazar hypothesis." At the same time, it is overlooked that "Turkic peoples" is a linguistic concept, not a genetic one. The Khazars were most likely an autochthonous Eastern European people who adopted the Old Turkic language together with the ruling elite of the descendants of Ashina. It has been shown that Eastern European Jews (especially Levites) are characterized by an increased occurrence of haplogroup R1a1a (alternative names: R-M17, M198), characteristic of some peoples of Europe and Asia, but not of the Middle East. It is perhaps here that the hypothetical "Khazar component" can be traced.
Kohanim
Kohanim should be mentioned separately. They are indeed noticeably different from non-kohanim in the corresponding community. As long as J1 and J2 were not distinguished, it was said that at least 75% of kohanim have a common (paternal) origin. When J1 and J2 were separated, the situation turned out to be less rosy. 51% of Ashkenazi kohanim (in other communities — approximately the same picture) carry haplogroup J1, and 22% — J2. At the same time, almost 30% of Ashkenazi Levites also carry a haplotype common with the European population.
Additional Materials and Sources
- 700–1000 AD. Khazars
- 800–950 AD. Paleo-DNA G2. Alans, Khazars
- 954 AD. Jewish-Khazar Correspondence
- 586 BC – 79 AD. Exodus of Jews to Mtskheta
- Genetic Studies on the Origin of Georgian Jews
- Khazar Confederates in the Don Basin. Afanasyev
- Druze
- Atzmon G, Hao L, Pe'er I, Velez C, Pearlman A, Palamara PF, Morrow B, Friedman E, Oddoux C, Burns E, Ostrer H. Abraham's children in the genome era: major Jewish diaspora populations comprise distinct genetic clusters with shared Middle Eastern Ancestry // Am J Hum Genet. — 2010 Jun 11. — Vol. 86(6). — P. 850-9.
- Behar DM, Yunusbayev B, Metspalu M, Metspalu E, Rosset S, Parik J, Rootsi S, Chaubey G, Kutuev I, Yudkovsky G, Khusnutdinova EK, Balanovsky O, Semino O, Pereira L, Comas D, Gurwitz D, Bonne-Tamir B, Parfitt T, Hammer MF, Skorecki K, Villems R. The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people // Nature. — 2010 Jul 8. — Vol. 466(7303). — P. 238-42.
- Hammer MF, Behar DM, Karafet TM, Mendez FL, Hallmark B, Erez T, Zhivotovsky LA, Rosset S, Skorecki K. Extended Y chromosome haplotypes resolve multiple and unique lineages of the Jewish priesthood // Hum Genet. — 2009 Nov. — Vol. 126(5). — P. 707-17.
- Kopelman NM, Stone L, Wang C, Gefel D, Feldman MW, Hillel J, Rosenberg NA. Genomic microsatellites identify shared Jewish ancestry intermediate between Middle Eastern and European populations // BMC Genet. — 2009 Dec 8. — Vol. 10. — P. 80.
- Behar DM, Thomas MG, Skorecki K et al. Multiple origins of Ashkenazi levites: Y chromosome evidence for both Near Eastern and European ancestries // Am J Hum Genet. — 2003. — Vol. 73. — P. 768−779.
- Hammer MF, Behar DM, Karafet TM, Mendez FL, Hallmark B, Erez T, Zhivotovsky LA, Rosset S, Skorecki K. Extended Y chromosome haplotypes resolve multiple and unique lineages of the Jewish priesthood // Hum Genet. — 2009 Nov. — Vol. 126(5). — P. 707-17.
- Nebel A, Filon D, Faerman M, Soodyall H, Oppenheim A. Y chromosome evidence for a founder effect in Ashkenazi Jews. — 2005. — Vol. 13. — P. 388–391.
- Underhill PA, Myres NM, Rootsi S. Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a // European Journal of Human Genetics. — 2010 Apr. — Vol. 18. — P. 479-484.
- Behar DM, Yunusbayev B, Metspalu M, Metspalu E, Rosset S, Parik J, Rootsi S, Chaubey G, Kutuev I, Yudkovsky G, Khusnutdinova EK, Balanovsky O, Semino O, Pereira L, Comas D, Gurwitz D, Bonne-Tamir B, Parfitt T, Hammer MF, Skorecki K, Villems R. The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people // Nature. — 2010 Jul 8. — Vol. 466(7303). — P. 238-42.
586 BC – 79 AD. Exodus of Jews to Mtskheta.