arshba.ru

ABASGIA


At the end of the 8th century, an early feudal state was formed — the Abkhazian Kingdom. The phrase "Abkhazian Kingdom" is characteristic exclusively of Georgian sources — the Byzantines until the 10th century regarded Abasgia — Abkhazia as a vassal principality. The Abkhazian Kingdom occupied a fairly wide area on the eastern coast of the Black Sea. The most stable borders of the Abkhazian Kingdom are considered to be: the Nechepsukho River (Nikopsia) — in the north; the Surami (Likhi) Range in the southeast; the Main Caucasus Range — in the northeast; the Chorokh River (Apsara) — in the south; the Black Sea — in the west. For the successful conduct of foreign policy in the Eastern direction, the second capital of the Abkhazian Kingdom (after Anakopia) became the city of Kutaisi (in Abkhaz: Kҭash). This choice of Leon II was also justified by the fact that Kutaisi was located on the shortest route to Khazaria, from where, if necessary, real military assistance could come. During the period of the Abkhazian Kingdom, the process of consolidation of individual Abkhazian tribes and nationalities into a single Abkhazian feudal nationality was completed.


LEON


"When the Greeks weakened, the eristavi of the Abkhazians named Leon, the nephew (brother's son) of the eristavi Leon, to whom Abkhazia was given as a hereditary possession, broke away from them. This second Leon was the son of the daughter of the Khazar king and (having taken advantage of) their (the Khazars') strength, broke away from the Greeks, seized Abkhazia and Egrisi up to Likhi, and assumed the name of the king of the Abkhazians," — this is how the anonymous author of the Georgian historical work of the 11th century "Chronicle of Kartli" describes the moment of the formation of the Abkhazian Kingdom. This event is usually dated between 786 and 797 or the very end of the 8th century. The socio-economic and political prerequisites for the formation of the Abkhazian Kingdom can be reduced to several determining factors. First of all, it should be borne in mind that the feudalization of Abkhazian society proceeded extremely slowly. The bulk of the direct producers were personally free. Communal land ownership and land use were preserved. The social structure of the mountain valleys of Abkhazia was even more archaic. Princely power relied mainly on free warriors-combatants and on the church.

Unlike the neighboring principalities (Lazica, Apsilia, etc.), Abasgia was almost unaffected by the invasion of the Arab conquerors, which contributed to the further progress of its economic and cultural development. One of the most important components of the economy of this state was transhumance pastoralism (peasants left their farms for several months and went with goats and sheep to the mountains). It is very important that during the same period, this form of pastoralism became widespread in Byzantium. This gives reason to believe that, along with other features (serf and temple construction, weapons, decoration, partly ceramics, etc.), the very structure of the Abkhazian village at the time of its entry into the early feudal stage of development already had much in common with neighboring Byzantium.


LEON II


The strengthening of Abasgia was objectively facilitated by the traditional desire of Byzantium to secure its northeastern border. In the conditions of Arab pressure, the presence of a strong Christian political entity in Colchis was especially desirable. The support that Leon I received from Byzantium (the confirmation of his hereditary right to Abasgia, the transfer to him of the insignia of royal dignity that belonged to the Kartlian king Mir, etc.) contributed to the inclusion of Lazica, and later of all of Colchis. A role was played by the weakening of attention to the region on the part of the Byzantine administration at the end of the 8th century and the strengthening of the corresponding influence of Khazaria, whose king's grandson through his mother was Leon II. In these conditions, declaring oneself independent presented no difficulties. It is no coincidence that the source emphasizes that the decisive force that opposed Leon II to the Byzantines were the Khazars. However, it would be wrong to think that the conditions of the emergence at the end of the 8th century contributed to the complete liberation of Abkhazia from Byzantine influence for the entire subsequent period. In contrast to Abkhazia and Byzantium, where the dominant ideology was Christianity, Khazaria was a Jewish country with strong pagan survivals.

To the east of Abkhazia, strong Muslim entities of Eastern Transcaucasia stood in opposition. The common land and sea borders with the empire also did not allow it to seriously break away from Byzantium. The preservation of the predominant economic, political, and cultural orientation towards Byzantium can be traced throughout the entire two-century history of the Abkhazian Kingdom. Apart from the above, no other specific information about Leon II has been preserved in the sources. It can be assumed that his Khazar mother had a great influence on his formation as a child, that he was less committed to Christianity than his predecessor, and that when choosing the capital of his state, in addition to considerations of governance and distance from the Byzantine border, Leon II was also guided by the fact that Kutaisi was located on the shortest route to Khazaria.

It is no coincidence that Leon II is not mentioned in such an important source as the "divan of the Abkhazian kings" — the official tradition apparently could not approve of his break with Byzantium and recognize the legality of the seizure of power in Abkhazia under conditions of hereditary possession guaranteed to Leon I. Some researchers suggest that upon ascending the throne, Leon II adopted the royal title "Apskha," which is translated from Abkhaz as "ruler (leader, head, king) of the Aps (Abkhazians)." Usually, Leon II's actions are viewed as a manifestation of some kind of his "pan-Georgian" policy. However, in reality, he built his own dominion within the aspirations characteristic of every feudal despot. At the same time, the entire subsequent history of the Abkhazian Kingdom is characterized by a continuously ongoing struggle and rivalry with neighboring kingdoms and principalities, especially for the possession of Kartlia. Objectively, this struggle over time led to the unification of all Kartvelian (Georgian) tribes, and the Abkhazian Kingdom played the main positive role in this process.

Interesting, although certainly reflecting a later (up to the 17th-18th centuries) situation, information about the administrative activities of Leon II was preserved by the Georgian geographer and historian Vakhushti Bagrationi. According to his data, "King Levan" divided his possessions into eight voivodeships (eristavates) — Abkhazian proper, Tskhomskoye, Bediyskoye, Gurian, Racha-Lechkhum, Svanetian, Argvetian, and Kutaisian, placing an independent ruler at the head of each. The borders of the Abkhazian voivodeship (ancient Abasgia) covered: in the east — the Anakopia area, in the south — the seashore, in the west — Djigetia (probably up to modern Gagra), in the north — the Caucasus Range to the sources of the Khazaria River (sources of the Kuban and its tributaries). The Tskhomskoye voivodeship (ancient Apsilia) extended from Anakopia (inclusive) in the west to the Egris-tskali River (modern Galidzga) in the east, from the seashore in the south to the Main Range, including some areas of Alania that extended into the mountainous zone of the voivodeship. The Bediyskoye voivodeship, the formation of which was initiated by the activities of Bagrat III at the end of the 10th — beginning of the 11th centuries, included areas of modern Abkhazia east of the Egris-tskali River.


ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF THE ABKHAZIAN KINGDOM


The ethnic composition of the Abkhazian Kingdom was not homogeneous. In its formation, besides the Abkhazians, Mingrelians and Svans participated, partly the Djiks (Zikhs) and Alans, as well as Iberians and other Kartvelian tribes, who settled in significant numbers in the eastern and southern regions of Colchis from Kartli, which the Arabs subjected to systematic devastation.

In the coastal cities, especially among the trading people, there were many Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The expansion of the Abkhazian administrative structure to the east in the 8th-10th centuries undoubtedly not only preserved the continuous Abkhazian (Abasgian-Apsilian) ethnic element throughout the entire territory between modern Gagra and Ingur, but also contributed to the widespread spread of this element in other (central, eastern, and southern) regions of Colchis, as well as in Kartli and Meskheti.

The eastern direction of the political and expansionist aspirations of the Abkhazian Kingdom is explained both by geographical conditions and other circumstances. In the north, these aspirations were hindered not only by the gorges of the Main Caucasus Range but also by the location of the strong Khazar state beyond them; to the south were the possessions of Byzantium. In the current situation, the most convenient objects for capture were the lands weakened by the Arab invasion, lying to the east and inhabited by Kartvelians.

This explains the fact that the political borders of the Abkhazian Kingdom expanded mainly in the southeastern direction — towards the interior regions of modern Georgia. The desire characteristic of Christian kings to expel the Arab-Muslim rulers from the more eastern regions of Transcaucasia also played a significant role in this. Following Apsha Leon, who died in 806, the Abkhazian Kingdom was alternately ruled by his three sons — Theodosius I, Demetrius II, and George I. According to the "divan of the Abkhazian kings," they occupied the throne for 70 years, according to other data — 50 years. The main content of the kingdom's foreign policy during this period was the struggle with the Arab Caliphate and the Tiflis Emirate for influence in the region. Under the leadership of Theodosius, the Abkhazians took part in the battle on the Ksani River, where a victory was won over the united Arab-Kakhetian army. On the contrary, in the battle at Kuetskhoba (853), the troops of the Abkhazians, led by Demetrius, suffered a defeat, and the Abkhazian Kingdom was forced for some time to pay tribute to the emir — monetary and in-kind compensation for peaceful relations.


RELATIONS WITH NEIGHBORS


The Abkhazian Kingdom did not exist in isolation. Like any other, this entity built its history on the basis of continuous contacts with neighboring states and peoples. Relations with Georgian political entities were significant, primarily with the close in character Tao-Klarjeti Kingdom (Theodosius was married, for example, to the daughter of the ruler of Tao-Klarjeti). Sufficiently strong ties were maintained with Byzantium, which repeatedly tried to provide assistance to the Abkhazian kings in their confrontation with the Tiflis emirs.

Thus, in 830, the "huge army" of the Byzantines sent to Transcaucasia by Emperor Theophilus was defeated by the Arabs. The attempt undertaken by the Byzantines in 843-844 was equally unsuccessful, when a large army under the command of the commander Theochristus was sent by sea to the shores of Colchis. The storm severely battered the fleet, and the landing force put ashore was soon defeated by the Arabs. Only under King George was Kartlia included in the Abkhazian Kingdom for some time. After the death of childless George, power in his kingdom was usurped for 20 years by representatives of the Shavliani clan, and the legitimate heir to the throne Bagrat (son of Demetrius) took refuge in the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople.

During this period, the Armenian kings also entered the struggle for the possession of Kartlia. Around 879, the Abkhazian Kingdom ceded Kartlia for a time to the Armenian king Ashot. The reign of the three sons of Leon I on the territory of present-day Abkhazia left almost no visible traces — all the attention of the Abkhazian kings was turned to the eastern borders of their possessions. The supreme ecclesiastical authority in this territory was exercised by the Archbishop of Sebastopolis, who was on the lists of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. One of the main temples of Abkhazia at that time was the Dranda Cathedral, where, it is believed, the archbishop's see was located.

The foreign policy situation changed in a direction favorable to the Abkhazian Kingdom during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Basil I (867-886), when a new rise in the political activity of the empire began. Taking advantage of the favorable moment for strengthening his positions in Transcaucasia, Basil gave Bagrat, the son of the Abkhazian king Demetrius, who was being raised at court, an army that was transported to Colchis by sea. Having marched to Kutaisi, Bagrat took possession of his father's throne almost without resistance and began active operations in the east, capturing a number of fortifications in Samtskhe (Southern Georgia). However, in 888, the rulers of Tao-Klarjeti and Armenia (in 886, the governor of the caliph placed a crown on the head of Ashot Bagratid, recognizing the formal existence of the Armenian Kingdom) united their efforts and inflicted a defeat on Bagrat's army at the Kura River.


STRUGGLE FOR KARTLI


The rivalry for Kartlia between the Abkhazian and Armenian kingdoms was continued under Bagrat's son Constantine III. At the end of the 90s, Constantine gave his daughter in marriage to the son of the Armenian king Smbat, and around 904, taking advantage of the disintegration of the Armenian Kingdom, he fully took possession of Kartlia. Later, after a short period of captivity by Smbat, Constantine strengthened his positions not only in Kartlia (as evidenced by the inscription in the Samtsevrisi church in Khashuri, which speaks of the construction of a canal here in the twentieth year of Constantine's reign), but also in Kakheti, Hereti (the inscription of the Eredvi church speaks of his campaign in this region) and other areas of Eastern Transcaucasia. Later, the eastern borders of the Abkhazian Kingdom were violated by the brutal invasions of the Arab emir Abu al-Qasim, who was pursuing the Armenian king Smbat, who had taken refuge in the "mountains of Abkhazia."

The possessions of the Abkhazian and Armenian kings adjoined for more than a century. The history of relations between the two largest Transcaucasian states of the 10th century is reflected in the works of many Armenian historians. For example, interesting information about the preparation of an anti-Arab Abkhazian-Armenian-Byzantine coalition is contained in the epistle of Nicholas Mysticus, preserved in the "History of Armenia" by Hovhannes Draskhanakertsi. Abkhazia was placed by Armenian sources not within the limits of "Georgia," as is now customary to write, and not even within the limits of Transcaucasia, but in the country of the Sarmatians "beyond the Caucasus Mountains," the name of which extended to the Likhi Range.

According to the chronicle, the successor of Constantine, George II, "was endowed with all blessings, courage and bravery, was god-loving, more than all he was famous as a builder of churches, merciful to the poor, generous, modest and full of nobility and kindness." George II built, in particular, a church in Chkondidi (Martvili), established a bishopric there and decorated the church with the relics of holy martyrs.

Around 930, he made his eldest son Constantine the "fiftieth" ruler of Kartli, who soon decided to take the Abkhazian throne from his father. When the conspiracy was uncovered, Constantine took refuge together with the feudal lords who supported him in the Kartlian fortress of Uplistsikhe. After a long siege, George lured his son out of the fortress by deceit, ordered his eyes to be gouged out, and to be killed.

The ruler of Kartlia was appointed George's second son, Leon. On the southern borders of the Abkhazian Kingdom, he was opposed by the Tao-Klarjeti kingdom dependent on Byzantium, which was then headed by Gurgen the Great. Against him, George sent another Tao-Klarjeti feudal lord — Ashot Kuropalates, for whom he gave his sister in marriage. Gurgen initially took possession of the border city of Artanuji with the Abkhazian Kingdom and pressed Ashot, forcing him to flee to George. After Gurgen's death, with George's assistance, Tao-Klarjeti was divided into three parts, one of which was annexed to the Abkhazian Kingdom. George devoted the last two years of his life to the conquest of Kakheti, which he did not manage to complete.

At the beginning of his reign, Leon III was engaged in strengthening the kingdom and construction activities. "And the Lord God magnified his reign, like his father," the chronicler recorded. By order of Leon, a church was erected in Mokva, at which a bishop's see was organized. On another church in Kumurdo (east of modern Vardzia), a construction inscription has been preserved, from which it follows that this church was founded "under King Leon in 964 in May, on the Saturday of the first moon." Thus, the southeastern border of the Abkhazian Kingdom at this time passed in the area of modern Akhalkalaki. Soon Leon's daughter, who was married to the son of the ruler of Kakheti, died. Since it was not possible to establish power over this region through a dynastic marriage, Leon, at the head of a large army, crossed the Aragvi, but fell ill and soon died childless. Leon was succeeded by his brother Demetrius II, whose reign was spent in the struggle with the younger son of George II, Theodosius. Since Theodosius was alternately supported by the feudal lords of such Kartvelian regions as Meskheti, Kartlia, Tao-Klarjeti and Kakheti, Demetrius had to overcome their resistance every time. Finally, Demetrius turned to the ruler of Kakheti with a letter in which he asked him to be a mediator in reconciliation with his brother, offering Theodosius an equal division of power in the Abkhazian Kingdom. Theodosius believed his brother's word and went to him. However, Demetrius, having broken his oath, soon ordered Theodosius to be seized and his eyes burned out. And therefore, when Demetrius died childless, the only heir to the Abkhazian throne turned out to be Theodosius I the Blind.


BAGRAT


The enthronement of Theodosius led to significant shifts in the hierarchy of the Abkhazian Kingdom. The rulers of Kakheti were the first to attack Kartlia. The governor of Theodosius in Kartlia, John Marushisdze, turned for help to the ruler of Tao-Klarjeti, David Kuropalates. As a result, the ruler of Kartlia became the daughter of the Abkhazian king George I, the sister of Theodosius the Blind, Gurandukht. And in 978, with the assistance of David Kuropalates, Theodosius was overthrown, and the son of Gurandukht and the Tao-Klarjeti feudal lord Gurgen Bagrationi (Bagrationi), Bagrat, was proclaimed king of Abkhazia. With this act, as many researchers believe, the history of the Abkhazian Kingdom as a Western Transcaucasian political entity ends, and from the "kingdom of the Abkhazians" there is a transition to the "kingdom of the Abkhazians and Kartvelians." The western border of the Abkhazian Kingdom was the Black Sea. According to the "Martyrdom of Abo Tbileli," in the second half of the 8th century, the extreme coastal points of the spread of Leon I's power were: in the northwest — the Napsay harbor (Nikopsia), and in the southwest — Apsareai (Apsar at the mouth of the modern Chorokh). These points retained their significance until the end of the 10th century, sometimes being included in the kingdom, sometimes passing into the territories of neighboring political entities (Chaldia, Djigetia, Zikhia).

Traditionally, researchers adhere to the opinion that the northwestern border of the Abkhazian Kingdom passed near the modern city of Tuapse, at the mouth of the Nechepsukho River (modern Novo-Mikhailovskoye village, Krasnodar Krai), and Sotiriupol is placed on the site of modern Pitsunda or Sukhumi. However, the translation of miles into kilometers allows placing Nikopsia on the site of the Tsandripsh settlement (Gantiadi), and Sotiriupol ("the city of Soter," i.e., Jesus Christ) — east of Trebizond, where the ruins of a medieval monastery associated with the name of Christ still remain today. Interesting results were obtained from excavations of the Tsandripsh basilica. This 6th-century church was thoroughly rebuilt in the 9th-10th centuries. A fragment of a marble slab with a Greek inscription was also found here, from which the end of the word "(Ab)asgias" has been preserved.

The Abkhazian-Byzantine ties were very extensive. Thanks to the support of Byzantium, the Abkhazian king Bagrat, who had lived in Constantinople for a long time, regained his throne. The ties with Byzantium also played a significant role in the strengthening of the Abkhazian Kingdom under Constantine III. It is no coincidence that it was precisely in the first decade of the 10th century that the Christianization of Alania began, adjacent to the Abkhazian Kingdom from the north — through the territory of the latter from its seaports between Pitiunt and Sebastopolis led paths connecting Byzantium with the leading centers of Alania of that period.

Without Constantine's assistance, the unhindered correspondence between Patriarch Nicholas Mysticus and the missionaries in Alania, which prepared the foundation of the Alanian metropolis, the earliest mention of which dates back to 907, would hardly have been possible. The same is evidenced by the fact of naming one of Constantine's grandsons Leo (Leon), who was born during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Leo the Philosopher (died 911). In the lists of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the mention of the Archbishop of Sebastopolis as the supreme ecclesiastical ruler of the Abkhazians also reappears. Relations with Byzantium, interested in strengthening the anti-Arab and anti-Khazar coalition in the Caucasus, intensified even more during the reign of George II. In 920, the Byzantine patriarch Nicholas Mysticus addressed a message to the Armenian Catholicos John, where he called on all Caucasian rulers to stop internecine strife and unite in the fight against the Arabs. The liberation of Armenia from Arab claims also eased the position of the Abkhazian Kingdom.

Nicholas Mysticus's letters characterize George II as an active conductor of Christianity and Byzantine policy in Alania. The successfully begun Christianization was interrupted by the events of 932, when the Alans renounced Christianity and expelled the bishops and priests. The reason for this was the defeat of the Alans in the war with Khazaria, which was hostile to Byzantium, which demanded the removal of Byzantine missionaries as one of the conditions of peace. However, this break, described by an Arab historian, was short-lived, and again with the assistance of the rulers of the Abkhazian Kingdom, the Christianization of Alania was continued. It is not excluded that during this period the unification of the Alanian and Sebastopolis archbishoprics took place, and the name Alania was assigned to the mountainous regions of modern Abkhazia, repeatedly manifested by Georgian sources.

Important milestones in Abkhazian-Byzantine relations in the middle of the third quarter of the 10th century should be considered the construction of the Mokva Cathedral, which was carried out with the undoubted participation of Byzantine masters and for the decoration of which marble columns and other decorative elements were exported from Byzantium, and Theodosius III receiving education in Constantinople.


CONCLUSION


Throughout history, the degree of sovereignty of states constantly changes. Periods of growth of statehood or imperial influence alternate with brutal conquests and devastation. The emergence and strengthening of states are replaced by their collapse or decline. Once united peoples acquire new cultural identities, begin to speak different languages and write in different scripts, while other peoples unite and their cultures merge.

Abkhazia has always been a place of convergence of various cultures — Greek, Roman, Persian, Arabic, Turkic, Russian, Slavic, and many others. According to church sources, the ancient Abkhazians received Christianity from the apostles of Christ himself — Simon the Zealot (buried in New Athos) and Andrew the First-Called. Slightly later, the Apostle Matthew also preached in Abkhazia. Christianity spread in Abkhazia after the apostles as well, through the first Christians exiled by Rome to Pitsunda. And the existing lists of bishops of the First Ecumenical Council of 325 in Nicaea (Beneshevich, 1908, pp. 285, 303; Lebedev, 1916, pp. 69, 102; Voronov, 1973, p. 103) ^[2], show the participation in it of the Abkhazian bishop Stratophilus of Pitiunt. To understand the importance of this event, it is worth noting that from the entire territory of the former USSR, only one more bishop from Crimea participated in the Council. Stratophilus of Pitiunt belonged to the Pontic (Cappadocian) Church. In this church, the first bishop of the Armenian Church, Gregory the Illuminator, was ordained, who then ordained a bishop for Abkhazia. It should be noted that in Eastern Georgia, the process of Christianization proceeded mostly from Syria, through the Antiochian Church, from which it received autocephaly.

Modern historical science can, albeit not always confidently, trace almost all the main rulers of Abkhazia over the last two millennia ^[3]. Leon II (767–811) — son of Theodosius. He succeeded his father's brother — Leon I. The mother of Leon II was the daughter of the Khazar Khagan, who contributed to the enthronement of his grandson in Abkhazia. At the same time, Byzantium was ruled by Emperor Leo the Khazar, the son of the second daughter of the Khazar Khagan — Irene. Thus, both Leon of Abkhazia and Leon (Leo) of Constantinople were sons of two sisters, i.e., cousins on the maternal side with a common grandfather — the powerful Khazar Khagan. Both Khazaria and Byzantium relied on the Abkhazian Kingdom as the first line of defense during the Arab invasion of their territories, which helped Leon II proclaim the independence of his state in 780. During the reign of the Abkhazian king Constantine III (899–929), the rivalry between the Armenian and Abkhazian kingdoms for Kartli continued. At the end of the 90s, Constantine gave his daughter in marriage to the son of the Armenian king Smbat, and in 904, during the period of the disintegration of the Armenian Kingdom and under Arab invasion, the Armenian king Smbat I ceded Kartli to Constantine III and cemented this alliance by giving his daughter in marriage to Constantine III. From this moment on, the Abkhazian kings sat in Kutaisi and sent their eldest sons to Kartli. The Abkhazian king also ruled over Kakheti and Hereti ^[4].

Under Bagrat II (978–1015), the capital of the state had already been moved from Anakopia (New Athos) to Kutaisi, founded by his maternal ancestor Leon II (767–811) on the site of an ancient city ^[5]. Bagrat's mother was the Abkhazian princess Gurandukht (975–978), his father was Gurgen, ruler of the northern part of Tao-Klarjeti, from the Kyurikid dynasty, a junior branch of the Armenian royal Bagratid dynasty. Bagrat called himself the king of the Abkhazians and wrote about it ^[6] in ancient Georgian, or Armenian-Georgian ^[7], and possibly Greek-Abkhazian-Armenian-Georgian ^{[8] [26] [27]} in Asomtavruli script. All ancient monuments of writing in Abkhazia, before the influence of the Ottoman and Russian empires, were first written in Aramaic, Latin, and Greek, and then in Georgian (scripts: Asomtavruli, Mkhedruli, Khutsuri). Incidentally, in the "Life of Constantine the Philosopher. 9th century," it is said that Saint Constantine the Philosopher (Saint Cyril), justifying in Venice his intention to create a script for the Slavs, cited as examples other peoples "... who give praise to God each in their own language; such are the following: Armenians, Persians, Avazgians, Iberians ..." which gives reason to assume that the Abkhazians (Avazgians) of the 9th century had worship in their own language ^[9].

In Sasanian sources (224–651), we encounter the first historical mentions of the country of Gurzan ^[22]. The Sasanians call the inhabitants of this country Alans, and the Alans, as is known, were descendants of the Massagetae; in turn, the Massagetae were also called Abasgians, Iberians, and Alans ^[24]. The future Georgian ethnos is not yet mentioned in Sasanian sources ^[23]. After the transfer of the kingdom's capital to Kartli in 1122, the terms "Sakartvelo" first appeared — in Georgian sources ("Life of Ioan Euthymius" and in the translation of "Life of Mediolanum") and "Gurjan", "Gurzan" — in Arabic, Persian, Syrian, and other sources. From this time until the 15th century, this state, along with the name "Abkhazia," was also called "Sakartvelo," "Gurjan," "Gurjistan," "Gurzan," from which the Russian name "Georgia" and "Georgians" originated ^[15].

As reactionary as it may sound, many sources show that it was the Abkhazian people who descended from the mountains to the outskirts of Tiflis in 1122, expelled the Muslims from there, and began to rule there ^[10]. And this is the reign of David IV — the Builder (1089–1125). Samples of David's letters addressed to the kings and prominent dignitaries of the country have been preserved, in which David is titled "King of Kings of Abkhazia (first of all), Shaki (Hereti), Alania, and Rus" ^[11]. So, once again reconquered Tiflis becomes the capital of the state. The Abkhazian kings (exactly as they signed themselves and are referred to in all Arabic and Persian sources, and the population of the kingdom is accordingly always called Abkhazians ^[12]), right up to Queen Tamar's daughter Rusudan (1222–1245), successfully ruled the strongest state in the region — the "Abkhazian Kingdom" (from the 8th century) or "Sakartvelo" (from the 11th century), which existed for almost 5 centuries ^[13], and this is firmly confirmed by the common gene pool of the peoples of the entire Western Caucasus ^[14].

In 1242, Rusudan signed peace with the Mongols, by which she recognized herself as a vassal. After this, according to the Armenian historian Hetum (13th century), the eastern part began to be called — Georgia, the western — Apvas (Abkhazia). In subsequent periods, the country was first divided into two, and then into a larger number of principalities. The principalities fell under multidirectional influences: religious, linguistic, cultural. An era of wars and fragmentation began.

To centralize power and form a mono-ethnic state, any rulers purposefully get rid of possible undesirable connections with the past. But today, most such distortions of facts are successfully leveled by modern science, since the very nature of scientific discoveries is such that it is simply impossible to hide them for long, and with DNA data, together with archaeology, anthropology, philology, and other related disciplines, a fairly clear historical picture emerges starting from the period of 20,000 BC ^[19]. The main migrations of the proto-Abkhazians over the last millennia are revealed — from ancient Iran and Anatolia to Germany through the Mediterranean and the Balkans, and then a return to Ukraine and already in the form of Cimmerians, reunification with ancient ancestors again in the Caucasus ^[20]. Later, from the Caspian Sea side, a repeated return to the Caucasus in the form of Sarmatians — probably as an Anatolian mixture of Massagetae and Cimmerians. And even later, the Alans emerge from the Sarmatians.

Footnotes:


^[2] History of Christianity in Abkhazia in the first millennium. D. Dbar 2001. p. 114.

^[3] Rulers of Abkhazia.

^[4] History of the Georgian people, ed. 1979, Javakhishvili I. A.

^[5] Kutaisi. V. Masalsky.

^[6] Inscription of King Bagrat in Asomtavruli.

^[7] Similarity of Armenian and Georgian scripts.

^[8] Book for reading on the history of the Middle Ages. Issue one. Vinogradov P.G. 1896.

^[9] Alphabetical writing and ancient Georgian script. T. Gamkrelidze (1989).

^[10] Abkhazia. Legal foundations of statehood and sovereignty. T.M. Shamba and A.Yu. Neproshin. 2004.

^[11] National Academy of Sciences of Georgia. Caucasian civilization in the context of globalization. R. Metreveli 2009. P. 34
Possibly here Rus corresponds to the possessions of the ruler Abukhvastro, who ruled Tsuketia, Tushetia, Khundzak, and all the pagans of those places. In Dagestani sources, the Avars, and sometimes other nationalities, are called Rus, or traced back to them. A connection is assumed with the ancient pre-Turkic ethnic layer of Eastern Europe — the Arsii (Rosses), Rossos-Mosokos (Masakha Huns?) of Albanian and Armenian sources (Mosokos were the name for Tushins living in the upper reaches of the Alazani, who were granted Alvani). This explains many misunderstandings in connection with the reports of medieval Arabic sources about the Rus (Rosses). The History of Shirvan and al-Bab, Arabic sources identify the raids of the Saririans (Sarir — Khunzakh) and the raids of the Rus on Arran. In N. Ganjavi, the leader of the Rus, Kintal (from the country of the Alans and Greeks), gathered an army from seven places. Kintal can be compared with the titles prince and nutsal, and seven places with the military-political union of the Didoyans — Antl Ratl (seven lands).

^[12] Abkhazians. Works. V.V. Bartold, volume II, part 1, pp. 861-865. 1963.

^[13] Maps 500–1000 AD.

^[14] Genetics of Abkhazians and the Western Caucasus. D.A. Arshba, 2014.

^[15] The meaning of the terms "Georgia" and "Sakartvelo" in medieval sources. G. Gumba 1994.

^[19] Ethnogenesis of the Abkhazians. D.A. Arshba, 2015.

^[20] Craniological and dental studies (Bioarchaeological Analysis of Mutual Relations of Populations of the Armenian Highlands and Eurasia Using Craniological and Dental Nonmetric Traits. Khudaverdyan 2012) of subjects from ancient burial grounds of Iberia, namely Samtavro (1100–600 BC) and Tserovani (1100–800 BC), in the Mtskheta area (ancient Armazi), reveal direct predecessors from the Shirochansky burial ground, Ukraine (1800–1100 BC), and assign them to the common cluster of the Belozerka culture (1200–1000 BC — Thracians, Cimmerians). The descendants of the Samtavro and Tserovani burial grounds are further identified in the burial grounds of the lower Don, Beglik (600–300 BC — Scythians, Maeotians).

^[22] P. 393, Melikishvili G.A. "On the history of ancient Georgia." – Tbilisi, 1959.

^[23] Pp. 137–141, Melikishvili G.A. "On the history of ancient Georgia." – Tbilisi, 1959.

^[24] "Iberians, Abasgians, and Alans are of one race ..." — John Tzetzes. Orig. Kissling 1826. Georgica. Information of Byzantine writers about Georgia. 1967 Vol. VII pp. 22–26.

^[25] Y-chromosomes of Abkhazians, Adyghes, Mingrelians, Georgians, and Ossetians.

^[26] Review of Hypotheses on the Origin of the Georgian Alphabet. L. Chkhaidze

^[27] Alexey Muravyov. On the origins of Kartvelian Christianity, the Armazian bilingual, and the features of Georgian writing. 2015

Sources:


History of Abkhazia. Editorial board: Candidate of Historical Sciences S. Z. Lakoba (chief editor), Doctors of Historical Sciences Yu. N. Voronov, B. E. Sagaria, Candidates of Historical Sciences T. A. Achugba, O. Kh. Bgazhba, V. F. Butba, historians R. Kh. Gozhba, R. P. Shamba. Reviewers: Candidate of Historical Sciences Yu. D. Anchabadze, Candidate of Historical Sciences S. M. Shamba

Bgazhba O. Kh., Lakoba S. Z. History of Abkhazia from Ancient Times to the Present Day. M., 2007

SECTION II

Abkhazia in the era of feudalism

§2. THE ABKHAZIAN KINGDOM AND KHAZARIA

There are known testimonies of the Georgian literary monument of the 80s of the 8th century "Martyrdom of Abo Tbileli" and the chronicle collection of Georgia (11th century), speaking of close contacts (including blood ties) between Abkhazia and Khazaria — these two powerful early feudal states. Few have asked the question: why is the name of Leon II, actually the first king of Abkhazia ("Apskha"), absent from the list (divan) of Abkhazian kings, compiled at the end of the 10th century by the first sovereign of the "kingdom of the Abkhazians and Kartlians" Bagrat III.

Khazar kinship. It would not be superfluous to recall some events that took place at that time. In 730, the Khazar Khagan Khakasr (grandfather of Leon II) died, and his mother, Parsbit (great-grandmother of Leon II), ruled for two years until the coming of age of the "son of the khagan" Barjil (uncle of Leon II), who together with Bulan ("deer"), the noblest of the Dagestani beks, who was the first to accept the Jewish religion in Khazaria under the name Sabriel, led the capture of the famous Arab city of Ardabil (present-day Azerbaijan). At the same time (732), the Byzantine emperor Leo the Isaurian (717–741), who in 708–711 was in Alania, Abasgia, and Apsilia, married his son Constantine V Copronymus, the future Byzantine emperor (741–775), to the daughter of the Khazar Khagan, Chichak ("flower" — aunt of Leon II). Upon being baptized, she took the name Irene, while at the same time the ceremonial dress at the Byzantine court began to be called "chichakion" in her honor. A little later, perhaps also not by chance, the wife of Constantine II of Abasgia (his lead seal from Pitsunda and the epigraphic inscription "Abasgias" from the Tsandripsh church are known) became the sister of Chichak. Thus, the father of Leon II became the brother-in-law of the Byzantine emperor of the same name. As a result, from the first couple was born Leo the Khazar, the future Byzantine emperor (775–780), and from the other — Leon II — the future first king of Abkhazia (786–806). It is difficult to establish with absolute accuracy the year of birth of the cousins, also namesakes. Most likely, Leo the Khazar was older than Leon II.

In 737, Marwan ibn Muhammad, the famous Arab commander and later caliph, after capturing most of Transcaucasia, moved against Khazaria from two sides: through Chora (Derbent Gates) and Daryal. He inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars, forcing the khagan to temporarily profess Islam. But on the "Abkhazian road" at the walls of the Anakopia fortress in 738, Marwan was stopped.

In honor of this victory, as you already know, Leo the Isaurian confirmed to the ruler of Abasgia Leon I the hereditary right to rule the country, although he was not the son of the previous ruler Constantine II, but only his younger brother.

After his marriage to Gurandukht and the death of Archil, Leon I inherited vast lands that included Abasgia, Apsilia, Misiminia, and all of Lazica. The northern border of his territory beyond the Caucasus Range was in contact with Khazaria.

In the thick of events. After the death of Leo the Khazar (780), the situation in Byzantium changed dramatically — a struggle for the throne began between his widow and other contenders, weakening the empire. At the same time, in Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, Albania), dissatisfaction with the Arab domination was brewing. As for Khazaria, it had recovered so much from the defeat inflicted on it by Marwan that it itself began to actively intervene in Caucasian affairs. It is not surprising that Leon II, the closest relative of the Khazars at the highest level, appeared on the historical scene at the right moment. With their help, he carried out a kind of palace coup (possibly after the death of Leon I). Geopolitically, the Abkhazian Kingdom as an independent state had already matured, which, naturally, Leon II took advantage of. The state of Abkhazia at the beginning of Leon II's reign is well conveyed in the Georgian source "Martyrdom of Abo Tbileli," which tells the story of an Arab youth, the servant of the Kartlian erismtavar Nerse, executed in 786 for converting to Christianity. Blessed Abo (Habib) joyfully saw the Christ-loving country of Abkhazia with its people, ruler, bishop, and priests. And only the close contacts of Leon II of Abkhazia with the Khazar elite allowed Nerse to hide his family in Abkhazia in advance, and to flee from the Arabs himself, accompanied by 300 horsemen, to the Khazar Khagan for help in the fight against the common enemy. Leaving Khazaria, Nerse lived in Abkhazia for several more months, waiting for the results of the negotiations of his nephew Stephanos, whom the Arabs had appointed erismtavar instead of him. It becomes clear why Leon II moved the capital of the Abkhazian Kingdom from Anakopia to Kutaisi at the end of his life, which was at a greater distance from the borders of the Byzantine Empire and on the shortest route to Khazaria. And to the question posed at the beginning: why Leon II, actually the first king of the Abkhazian early feudal state, did not get into the list (divan) of the Abkhazian kings, can be answered as follows. Firstly, Leon I (uncle of Leon II) was legitimized by the Byzantine emperor himself to inherit Abkhazia, and Leon II seemed to ignore this. Secondly (possibly the main reason) — his origin. It cannot be ruled out that the formation of Leon II's personality was greatly influenced by his Khazar mother, who, unlike her sister Chichak (Irene), most likely professed either traditional pagan or innovative Jewish religion, which King Obadiah made the state religion of Khazaria at the beginning of the 9th century.

Perhaps that is why Leon II was less subject to Christianity than his uncle. One should also ponder the symbolism of the oldest layer of the 10th century palace in Lykhny, on the northern facade of which a cross is depicted, inscribed in a six-pointed Star of David. Is this not a replica of the syncretism of the two religions in the Abkhazian Kingdom?! In turn, the Khazars showed religious tolerance towards Christianity.

Speaking about the traditional religion among the ancient Abkhazians and Khazars, it should be noted their special veneration of the deity of thunder and lightning (respectively Afy and Kuara), worship of trees (especially oak), self-mutilation during burial rites, etc.

Contacts between the Abkhazian Kingdom and the Khazar Khaganate were also reflected in archaeological materials related to ceramic (amphorae of Saltovo-Mayaki appearance, slender jugs with flat handles, pithoi with applied rollers, etc.) and ironworking (arrowheads, sabres, some tools, etc.) productions of these countries.

So, the Abkhazians and Khazars, as we see, created powerful early feudal states in their time, which resisted the Arabs and stopped their advance into Europe; this alone is enough to ensure these peoples a solid and worthy place on the pages of world history.


Spartak Zhidkov. "The Throw of a Small Empire"

Many historians, including Georgian ones (such as Javakhishvili, Janashia, Melikishvili, Japaridze, etc.), assert that several thousand years ago the northeast of Asia Minor and the entire Western Caucasus were inhabited by Hatto-Abkhaz-Adyghe tribes, later driven out from most of Western Transcaucasia by the ancestors of modern Georgians. In general, both Abkhazian and most Georgian historians recognize that the Apsilae and Abasgians inhabited modern Abkhazia already in the 1st century AD, and their eastern border of settlement subsequently changed repeatedly.

Historians from the 1st century AD divide Abkhazia into Sanigia (the area west of the Bzyb River), Abasgia (between the Bzyb and Anakopia), and Apsilia (between Anakopia and Galidzga). Over time, Abasgia became the pillar of Byzantine power in Transcaucasia and gradually subjugated Sanigia and Apsilia. Thus, a united Abkhazia was formed.

However, at this time, throughout modern Western Georgia, the migration of tribes continued. The ethnic borders of even such ancient Kartvelian tribes as the Soani (Svans) and Manrali (Mingrelians) had not yet been determined. Georgian historians consider the latter to be the founders of the first state in Western Transcaucasia — Colchis (7th century BC). This kingdom was weak. In the 3rd century BC, Colchis was conquered by the Eastern Georgians — Iberians (Iverians) and gradually disintegrated. The Iverians called the Manrali Mingrelians or Egre, hence the name of the ancient Mingrelian country — Egrisi.

In the first half of the 1st millennium AD, the movement of tribes in Western Transcaucasia slowed down. During this period, the Svans temporarily inhabited modern Mingrelia, and later penetrated west through the Kodori Gorge to Dioscuria (modern Sukhumi). Then, in the 2nd century AD, the Kartvelian tribes of the Lazi moved into Western Transcaucasia. They mixed with the Manrali, occupied most of the Colchian Lowland, and pushed not only the Abkhazians but also the Svans to the northwest. The state created by the newcomers — Lazica, or the Egrisian Kingdom — became the stronghold and conductor of Roman rule, and later of Byzantine rule. With the help of the latter, Lazica briefly established control over Svaneti and Apsilia in the 6th century, while Abasgia retained its kings.

From the end of the 5th century, Lazica began to weaken; in the mid-6th century, Abasgia and Apsilia became virtually independent from the Lazi, and Svaneti generally seceded from Byzantium; the power of the Lazican kings extended only to Central Colchis. In 523, Christianity was introduced in Lazica, and in the 6th century, all the states of Western Transcaucasia became Christian, where paganism also retained its positions, peacefully coexisting with Christianity in Abkhazia until modern times.

Having seceded from Lazica, Abasgia, together with other Black Sea principalities, became directly subordinate to Byzantium. At the same time, the dynasty of the Anosid kings was established in Abasgia. Abasgia under the Anosids became (like Lazica earlier) the pillar of Byzantine power in Transcaucasia and gradually subjugated Sanigia and Apsilia. The Lazican kingdom weakened more and more. In 697, the ruler of Lazica seceded from the Byzantines and handed over the country to the Arabs.

At the beginning of the 8th century, the kings of Eastern Georgia — Kartli, vassals of the Arabs, established their power over Lazica. In the already united Abkhazia, the Leonid dynasty, related to the Anosids, began to rule at the same time. Its founder, Leon I, led the resistance to the invasion of the Arabs with Marwan Krou, the cousin of Caliph Hisham, in the 30s of the 8th century. Striving to establish Arab dominance in Kartli, Marwan devastated the entire country, defeated the rebellious, and founded the Tbilisi (Tiflis) Emirate, which later became an independent state and existed until 1122. During this war, the sons of Kartli — Archil and Mirian, the future father-in-law of Leon — fled to Abkhazia. Marwan invaded after them and besieged the capital of Abasgia and all of Abkhazia — Anakopia (near New Athos). According to legend, the Abkhazian-Kartvelian army inflicted a defeat on the Arab army.

Most sources, however, speak of the Arabs' victory. But in Marwan's camp, a plague began, and the Arabs began to retreat from Abkhazia; soon they lost all of Western Transcaucasia. Thus, in the 8th century, the Abkhazians and Kartvelians fought together against a common enemy; subsequently, wars between them until the 17th century were only political in nature, not national.

By the end of the 8th century, invasions into Abkhazia decreased, and it turned into a powerful state. Leon I, through a dynastic marriage, annexed Lazica and united all of Western Transcaucasia under his rule, including Zikhia (located west of the Gagra Range and inhabited by peoples of the Adyghe group). The successor of Leon I, his nephew Leon II, with the help of Khazaria, seceded from Byzantium, and Abkhazia became an independent state. The Abkhazian Kingdom, located at the crossroads of three huge powers — Byzantium, the Arab Caliphate, and Khazaria — not only preserved its independence but also began to gradually expand to the east, reconquering Kartvelian regions from the disintegrating caliphate. Subsequently, the Abkhazian state became the backbone of a new, united, and independent Georgia. Leon II moved the capital to Kutaisi, located in the center of Western Georgia, at the crossroads of the most important trade routes; Anakopia continued to play the role of the royal residence under him.

Georgian historians believe that the transfer of the capital to the territory of Lazica marked the transformation of the Abkhazian Kingdom into a West Georgian one, and from that moment the Georgian ethnos began to dominate in the Leonid state. Indeed, in the Abkhazian Kingdom after Leon II, official documents were kept in Georgian (until the 10th century also in Greek), and church services were conducted in it (the Abkhazians had no writing of their own). If we compare, for example, the Abkhazian state with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the time of its flourishing, then the majority of this state were Russians, its official language was Russian, the dominant religion was Orthodoxy (the Lithuanians themselves were pagans); the Lithuanians could not help but reckon with the prevailing Old Russian ethnos in the state, but no one on this basis requires calling the Lithuanian Principality of the 15th century Russian.

As for the transfer of Leon II to Kutaisi and the predominance of the Georgian ethnos, it is explained by the fact that earlier all rulers moved their residences to newly acquired countries ("...if the conquered country differs in language, customs, and orders, then it is indeed very difficult to hold power there; it requires both great luck and great skill," wrote Machiavelli. "And one of the most reliable and direct means for this is to move there to live... For only by living in the country can one notice the beginning of turmoil and suppress it in time; otherwise, one learns about it when it has gone so far that it is too late to take measures. By settling in the conquered country, the sovereign will also save it from the plunder of officials, for the subjects will be able to directly appeal to the sovereign's court — this will give the obedient more reasons to love him, and the disobedient to fear him").

In addition to the Abkhazian Kingdom, on the territory of modern Georgia there were several states: Tao-Klarjeti (Southwest), Kartli (Center), Kakheti and Hereti (East). The subject of disputes in the struggle for hegemony in Georgia was weak but strategically located Kartli; the successor of Leon the Great, Theodosius II (died 825), already took part in the wars for it. Demetrius II (825-861) repelled three invasions of the Byzantines from the sea, as well as the invasion of the Arab commander Bug the Turk, but he could not conquer Kartli. His successor George I (years of reign 861-868) succeeded, but after his death an internecine war broke out. The widow of George I married the feudal lord John Shavliani (a Svan) and made him king. The Shavliani dynasty (John and his son Adarnase) ruled for about twenty years, and the prince Bagrat (son of Demetrius II), who had fled to Constantinople, around 887, with the support of Byzantine troops, regained his throne, killed Adarnase, and restored the Abkhazian dynasty.

Bagrat's son, Constantine III (893-922), after intense wars with the Arabs, secured Kartli for himself and made a victorious campaign in Hereti. The Abkhazian Kingdom reached its greatest power during the reign of the energetic, intelligent, and cruel George II (922-957). His power extended to the northwest beyond Anapa; in the south, he ruled Javakheti; in the east, the border of Abkhazia remained the Ksani River. Most of Georgia was in the hands of the Abkhazian kings, but the conquests of the Abkhazians ended there. With each newly annexed region, it became increasingly difficult for them to keep under their rule a territory with a predominantly Georgian population.

Being sufficiently strong, the Abkhazian Kingdom did not disintegrate, but the victories of the Abkhazian kings no longer brought them territorial acquisitions. Although George II defeated Kakheti and captured its ruler Kvirike II, and his troops occupied almost all of modern Georgia, he could not annex Kakheti to Abkhazia.

George II's son, Leon III (957-967), was famous for great construction and victorious wars, but he also failed to conquer Kakheti. After his death, a fierce struggle for the throne broke out between his younger brothers. One of them, Demetrius III (967-975), treacherously blinded his brother Theodosius; the outraged feudal lords overthrew him and elevated his blinded rival brother (Theodosius III the Blind 975-978). Under him, feudal anarchy began in Abkhazia, and in Kartli, Theodosius's ally, the ruler of Southwestern Georgia (which had divided into several appanages in the 9th century), David III Kuropalates, placed prince Bagrat — the subsequently famous Bagrat III. This was the son of Gurgen II, David III's second cousin, and the Abkhazian princess Gurandukht, the sister of Theodosius the Blind. All the sons of George II of Abkhazia were childless, and Bagrat, the only legitimate heir to the Abkhazian throne, was destined to found the great Georgian state of the Bagratids.

In 978, Theodosius III died, and Bagrat sat in Kutaisi as king of Abkhazia; the state was united again, but from that time the Georgian element begins to predominate in it. This kingdom was still called Abkhazian for a long time, but the Abkhazians lost their leading role in it. Bagrat III easily achieved what the Abkhazian kings could not — the unification of most Georgian lands. In 1001, he inherited the possessions of his adoptive father David III; in 1008 — of Gurgen II; in 1010, he conquered Kakheti and Hereti. The further history of his state is already the history of the Georgian kingdom of the Kartvelians, whose capital until 1122 was Kutaisi, and then Tbilisi. During the flourishing period of the Georgian state under David the Builder and Queen Tamar, Abkhazia occupied the most honorable place in its composition. The Abkhazians never raised national uprisings against the Bagratids, for they were descendants of the ancient Abkhazian dynasty, and they, in turn, never encroached on the culture, language, and customs of the Abkhazian people.

Abkhazia was ruled by minor feudal lords, whose political influence began to gradually increase as Georgia weakened — as a result of the invasion of the Khwarezmians, as well as Timur's invasion (14th century). Already during this period, Georgia fell apart into Eastern and Western several times, but until the 15th century, it invariably united again. Fragmented into small principalities, Abkhazia did not try to revolt against Georgia even during the period of its decline.