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The Byzantine historian Agathias noted the developed navigation among the Colchians ["On the Reign of Justinian"].


Materials:

History of Adygea. Gubzhokov 2009

The formation of the state of Alania in the Central Caucasus, which existed until the 13th century.


Materials:

History of Adygea. Gubzhokov 2009

The appearance of the Pontic tribe of the Alarodii (Armenians). Descendants of the Urartian population preserved to the north of Lake Van.

The Misimiani appear. The Misimiani were part of the Apsilian tribal union. They lived in the foothill and mountainous parts, occupying the territory between the Kodori and Inguri rivers. To the west they bordered the Apsilians near the main fortress of Apsilia – Tzibilium. To the east, the border with the Laz ran near the Misimian fortress of Buchloon (modern Pakhulan) on the Inguri. More details.

The Khazars appear — a Turkic nomadic people. They became known in the Eastern Ciscaucasia (lowland Dagestan) soon after the Hunnic invasion. According to some researchers (B.N. Zakhoder), the Khazar ethnos had a dualistic basis, uniting two main tribes — the White and Black Khazars (Kalis-Khazars and Kara-Khazars). Proponents of another point of view (M.I. Artamonov, A.P. Novoseltsev) consider this division not ethnic but social and point to a more complex organization. In close connection with the Khazar tribal union were the Barsils, Savirs, Balanjars and others. Later they were partially assimilated. The Barsils were closest to the Khazars, together with whom they are often mentioned in the initial period of history, and the country of Bersilia appears in sources as the starting point from which Khazar expansion in Europe begins. More details.

The Byzantine historian Agathias of Myrina (6th century), in his work "On the Reign of Justinian," reports on the tribe of the Misimiani. In their way of life, culture and language they were similar to the Apsilians, that is, they were ancestors of the modern Abkhazians. The Misimiani occupied the foothill territory in the interval from the Kodori to the Inguri above the Apsilians. To the north they bordered the Alans, to the east — the Svans, and to the southeast — the Laz. The Misimiani were famous for their fortresses: Buchloon, Tzakhar, Bat, Pal, Lar, Akhysta.

Maps of this period.


Materials:

"History of Abkhazia in Dates." T.A. Achugba 2011

Nomadic tribes of Central Asia, Western Siberia, the Urals and the Volga region. Mentioned from the mid-5th century. In the mid-6th century, they invaded the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region. They founded the Avar Khaganate in the Danube basin. At the end of the 8th century, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charlemagne.

At the beginning of the 6th century, Persian troops invaded the Western Caucasus. The interests of two great powers — Iran and Byzantium — clashed on the territory of the Eastern Black Sea region. Iran, with the support of its North Caucasian allies, attempted to wrest Colchis from Byzantium and in the mid-6th century carried out a series of devastating campaigns. Byzantium, with the support of local political entities, even before the Persian invasion, renewed the Pontic Limes (Pontus — Black Sea, limes — border) and created an internal defensive system — the Clisura (from Greek — gorge fortification). However, among the local political entities, pro-Byzantine and pro-Iranian sentiments often arose depending on changes in the balance of military-political forces of the great powers.

Maps of this period.


Materials:

"History of Abkhazia in Dates." T.A. Achugba 2011

Procopius of Caesarea (6th century AD) "War with the Persians"

(According to the edition: Procopius of Caesarea "War with the Persians. War with the Vandals. Secret History." M. 1993.)

523–527 AD

I. XI. (24) : On the Roman side were sent Hypatius, nephew of the former emperor Anastasius, a patrician holding the office of strategos of the East, and Rufinus, son of Sylvanus, honored among the patricians and known to Kavadh through his ancestors; (25) on the Persian side the envoys were Seos, a powerful man with great rights, bearing the title of adrastadaran salan, and Mevod, holding the office of magister.
(26) Having met at a place which is on the very border of the Roman and Persian states, they entered into negotiations with each other, striving to end the disagreements and establish a lasting peace. Khosrow also came to the Tigris River, which is about two days' journey from the city of Nisibis, intending to set out for Byzantium when it seemed to both sides that peace was firmly established. Much was said by the envoys of both sides concerning the disagreements between them. Seos asserted that the Romans forcibly and without any right held Colchis, which from ancient times had been subject to the Persians, and which is now called Lazica. (29) The Romans, hearing these words, considered it deeply insulting that even Lazica was being disputed by the Persians. When they, in turn, said that the adoption of Khosrow should take place as is customary among barbarian peoples, this seemed to the Persians an unbearable insult. (30) Having separated, both sides returned to their homes; Khosrow also returned to his father, not having achieved his goal. Greatly angered by all that had happened, he swore to take revenge on the Romans for the insult done to him.

(31) Later, Mevod slandered Seos before Kavadh, alleging that he had deliberately, contrary to the commission given to him by his lord, stirred up the dispute about Lazica, thus disrupting the peace negotiations, and that he had come to a previous agreement with Hypatius, who, by no means being loyal to his basileus, was trying to prevent the conclusion of peace and the adoption of Khosrow. Seos's enemies, accusing him of much else besides, summoned him to trial.

XII. After this, although Kavadh burned with the desire to invade Roman territory, he could by no means do so, for he encountered the following obstacle. (2) The Iberians living in Asia settled at the very Caspian Gates, located to the north of them. To their left, to the west, is Lazica; to their right, to the east, are the tribes subject to the Persians. (3) The Iberians are Christians and better than all the peoples known to us preserve the statutes of this faith, but from ancient times they have been in subjection to the Persian king. (4) Kavadh, however, conceived the idea of forcibly converting them to his faith. He demanded from their king Gurgenes that he should perform all those rites which the Persians observe, and, among other things: by no means to bury the bodies of the dead, but to throw them all to be eaten by birds and dogs. (5) Therefore Gurgenes decided to go over to the side of King Justin and asked him to give a firm promise that the Romans would never hand over the Iberians to the power of the Persians. (6) Basileus Justin very readily gave him such a promise and sent the nephew of the former basileus, Anastasius, the patrician Provus, with a large sum of money to the Bosporus, so that, having won over the army of the Huns with gifts, he might send them as allies to help the Iberians. (7) The Bosporus is a coastal city; for one sailing into the so-called Euxine Pontus, it is on the left, and from Cherson, the most distant city of the Roman land, it is at a distance of twenty days' journey. The regions between Cherson and the Bosporus are occupied by the Huns. (8) The inhabitants of the Bosporus had long lived independently, but recently they had given themselves under the power of Basileus Justin. (9) However, Provus returned from there without achieving his goal, and the basileus sent to Lazica the commander Peter with a small number of Huns, so that he might, as far as possible, help Gurgenes. (10) At the same time, Kavadh also sent against Gurgenes and the Iberians a very considerable army led by a general, a Persian by birth, holding the rank of variz, by name Voes. (11) Seeing that he had insufficient strength to withstand the Persian invasion, for the Roman help was small, Gurgenes with all the noble Iberians fled to Lazica, taking with him his wife and all his sons and brothers, the eldest of whom was Peranius. (12) Finding themselves within the borders of Lazica, they stopped there and, protected by narrow mountain passes, began to resist the enemy. (13) The Persians pursuing them accomplished nothing significant here, since the same inaccessible terrain proved an obstacle to their attack.

(14) Then the Iberians arrived in Byzantium; Peter also returned, recalled by the basileus, and for the future, since the Laz did not wish to bear the guard here, the basileus deemed it necessary to guard this land together with them, sending there troops under the command of Irenaeus.

(15) On the very border of the Laz, in that place where they enter from the territory of Iberia, there are two fortifications, the guard of which from ancient times was entrusted to the local inhabitants, although they suffered great shortage of everything here, for there is neither grain, nor wine, nor anything else necessary for life. (16) And it is impossible to bring anything from elsewhere because of the mountain defiles, unless people bring it on their backs. (17) The Laz living there were able to live there, feeding on the millet growing in these places, to which they were accustomed.

(18) Having removed the garrisons from these fortresses, the basileus ordered Roman soldiers to perform guard duty here.

(19) At first the Laz, although with great difficulty, brought them provisions, but later they refused this service; therefore the Romans abandoned these fortresses, and the Persians occupied them without any difficulty. This is what happened in the land of the Laz.
I. XV. (19) Shortly before this, they (the Byzantines - A.S.) succeeded in subduing the people of the Tzani, who from ancient times lived within the Roman state as an independent tribe. How this happened, I shall now relate. (20) If one goes from Armenia to Persarmenia, to the right are the Taurus Mountains, stretching as far as Iberia and the lands of the peoples living there, as I related a little earlier. To the left, however, for a great distance stretches a road, going all the time downhill, and above it rise mountains with steep cliffs, wrapped in eternal clouds and snows. (21) Flowing out from here, the Phasis River then rushes violently into the land of Colchis. Here from ancient times lived barbarians, the tribe of the Tzani, which in former times was called the Sanni. They were subject to no one and were engaged in plundering the neighboring Romans; they led a very harsh life and fed only on what they plundered, for their land gave nothing for their sustenance. (22) Therefore the Roman basileus sent them annually a certain amount of gold so that they would no longer plunder those places. (23) At the same time, they gave their ancient oaths, but then, despising what they had sworn, they made unexpected raids, causing great devastation not only to the Armenians, but also to the neighboring Romans, as far as the sea; then after a short raid they quickly returned home. (24) Of course, when they had to meet the Roman army, they suffered defeat in battle, but because of the inaccessibility of their locality, it was impossible to subdue them completely. Even before this war, Sittas defeated them in battle; by kind words and gentle treatment he managed to attract them completely to his side. (25) Having changed their way of life to a more cultured one, they began to enlist in Roman detachments and subsequently went with the Roman army against the enemy. They also changed their faith to a more pious one, becoming Christians. Such were the affairs of the Tzani.
(26) If one crosses the borders of their region, a deep valley opens up, bordered by steep cliffs and extending to the Caucasus Mountains. Here are scattered very populous villages and vines and other fruits grow in abundance. (27) This valley for about three days' journey is under Roman rule, and then begin the borders of Persarmenia, where the gold mines are located.

II. XV. At this time, Khosrow led his army into Colchis, since the Laz urged him to do so for the following reason. (2) The Laz originally lived on the lands of Colchis, being subjects of the Romans, however, without paying them tribute and in no other way expressing obedience to them, except that when their king died, the Roman basileus sent the insignia of power to him who was to occupy the throne. (3) And he, together with his subjects, carefully guarded the borders of the land, so that the hostile Huns of the Caucasus Mountains, neighboring them, might not pass through Lazica and invade the lands of the Romans. (4) They kept guard without receiving from the Romans either money or troops. They never went on campaigns with the Romans, but always carried on maritime trade with the Romans living by the sea. (5) They have neither salt, nor grain, nor any other goods; by selling undressed hides, skins and captives taken in war, they acquire for themselves all that is necessary. (6) When the events concerning the Iberian king Gurgenes occurred, about which I told in the preceding narrative, Roman soldiers settled in the country of the Laz, which greatly displeased these barbarians, and most of all the commander Peter, who could easily insult anyone he met.

II. XV. (9) Later, Basileus Justinian sent other commanders to Lazica, among them John, who was called Tzibus, a man of obscure and low origin, who had risen to the rank of strategos only because he was the most worthless of all men and the most capable in finding means for illegal acquisition of money. He it was who upset and threw into disorder the affairs of the Romans and the Laz. (10) He persuaded Basileus Justinian to build in Lazica a coastal city by the name of Petra. Establishing himself here as in a fortress, he plundered the property of the Laz. (11) Salt and other goods that were considered necessary for the Laz could no longer be brought by merchants to Colchis, nor could anything be bought elsewhere, but having established the so-called monopoly, he himself became a merchant and manager of everything that was here, buying and selling everything to the Colchians not as was customary, but as it pleased him. (12) Moreover, the barbarians were displeased that the Roman army remained with them, which had not happened before. Unable to bear this any longer, they decided to go over to the side of the Persians and Khosrow and immediately, in order to arrange all this, they secretly sent envoys from the Romans. (13) They were instructed to take an oath from Khosrow that he would never give the Laz back to the Romans against their will, and on this condition to bring him with the Persian army into their country.

540 AD

(14) Arriving in Persia and secretly appearing before Khosrow, the envoys said the following: "If ever some other [peoples], having in some way fallen away from their own friends and joined people completely unknown to them, which they should not have done, beneficent fate has again returned with the greatest joy to their former intimates, then such, O great king, consider the Laz also. (15) The Colchians from ancient times were allies of the Persians, did much good for them and experienced [it from them]. There are many mentions of this in our writings and in those that are still kept in your royal palace. (16) Later, whether because you ceased to care for them, or for some other reason (of this we are not exactly sure), our ancestors became allies of the Romans. (17) Now we and the king of the Laz hand over ourselves and our land to the Persians for your complete disposal. (18) But we ask you to judge us only as follows: if we, having experienced nothing bad from the Romans, have gone to you through mere imprudence, immediately reject our request, considering that the Colchians will never be faithful to you either (for the manner in which the friendship was broken is proof of what the friendship concluded afterwards with others will be like). (19) If in words we were friends of the Romans, but in fact their faithful slaves, if we have suffered from them, who unlawfully seized power over us, impious acts, then receive us, your former allies, rule as slaves over those in whom you once had friends, hate the cruel tyranny that has been set up over us in the neighboring [country], and perform a deed worthy of justice, to protect which has always been characteristic of the Persians. (20) For a man who himself does not act unjustly is [still] not just, if he is not inclined to defend those wronged by others, when there is opportunity for it. (21) It is fitting here to mention some deeds which the accursed Romans have dared to commit against us. Leaving our king only the appearance of royal power, they took away from him real power, and the king is in the position of a servant, fearing the commanding strategos. (22) They placed a huge army over us not to protect us from those who trouble us (for none of the neighbors troubled us except the Romans themselves), but in order, as if locking us in a prison, to become masters of our possessions. (23) See, O king, what an invention they have hit upon, pondering how to get their hands on our property as soon as possible. (24) The provisions that they have in excess, they force the Laz against their will to buy, and of what Lazica produces, the most useful in their eyes they force us to sell, although this is a sale only in words, since in both cases the price is determined by the decision of those on whose side the power is. (25) Thus, along with what is necessary for us, they take away from us all our gold, plausibly calling it trade, but in fact oppressing us as much as possible. An archon now stands over us, a trader who from our hopelessness creates a source of income for himself, using his power. (26) Therefore, the cause of our revolt [from the Romans], being such, is just in itself. What benefit you will have if you accept the request of the Laz, we shall now tell. (27) You will add to the Persian power a very ancient kingdom, and thus you will expand the limits of your power, and you will be able through our country to come into contact with the Roman sea, having built ships on which, O king, you will easily make the palace in Byzantium accessible to yourself. You will have no obstacles on the way. (28) To this can be added that it will be up to you to allow [or not] the neighboring barbarians to plunder the Roman lands every year. (29) For until now, on the side of the Caucasus Mountains, the country of the Laz was a barrier to this, as you well know. (30) So, when actions are moved by justice, and to this is added the consciousness of benefit, not to heed our words, it seems to us, is the height of imprudence." So said the envoys.

(31) Khosrow, delighted by these speeches, agreed to help the Laz and began to ask the envoys whether it was possible to march into the lands of Colchis with a large army. (32) He said that he had heard before from many accounts that this country was difficult to pass even for a lightly armed warrior, that its mountains were unusually steep and for a great space covered with dense forests of huge trees. (33) They began to assure him that the road through the country would become accessible to the whole Persian army if they cut down the trees and threw them into the difficult passes. (34) They themselves agreed to be guides for the Persians and to take upon themselves the burden of care necessary for the Persians in this matter. This promise pleased Khosrow, he began to gather a large army and prepare for the campaign, without telling anyone of his intention.

541 AD

II. XVII. Khosrow and the Median army, having passed through Iberia, found themselves within the borders of Lazica, the envoys of the Laz being their guides. Meeting no resistance, they cut down the trees that grew in these rocky places in a continuous, huge, high forest, which made this country completely impassable for an army. Felling the trees where it was impossible to pass, they cleared a way for themselves. (2) When they arrived in the center of Colchis (where, as the poets tell, the events connected with Medea and Jason took place), the king of the Laz, Gubazes, came to them and fell prostrate before Khosrow, son of Kavadh, as before a lord, handing over to him himself together with the royal palace, and all of Lazica.

(3) There is in Colchis the coastal city of Petra on the so-called Euxine Pontus. Earlier it was an insignificant place; Basileus Justinian fortified it with a wall and other equipment and in general made it prominent. (4) Khosrow, learning that a Roman army was stationed here under the command of John, sent an army and the strategos Aniabedes with the intention that they should take them at the first onslaught. (5) John, learning of their approach, ordered his men not to remain outside the fortifications and not to show themselves to the enemy from the battlements, but, having armed the whole army, placed it at the gates, ordering them to keep silence, not uttering a word or a sound. (6) And so the Persians, coming quite close to the wall and seeing and hearing no enemy at all, thought that the city was empty, since the Romans had abandoned it. (7) Therefore they drew still closer to the wall, intending immediately to put up ladders, since no one was defending the city. (8) Seeing and hearing nothing hostile, they sent word to Khosrow and announced this to him. (9) He, having sent the greater part of the army, ordered them to try to enter the city from all sides and sent some of the commanders with orders to use a battering ram against the gates. He himself, having stationed himself on the nearest hill to the city, watched what was happening. (10) Immediately the Romans suddenly opened the gates and, unexpectedly attacking the enemy, killed many, especially those who were near the battering ram. The rest, together with the strategos, escaped with difficulty. (11) Seized with anger, Khosrow impaled Aniabedes because John, a trader and generally a non-military man, had defeated him by his military cunning. (12) Some, however, say that it was not Aniabedes who was impaled, but the commander who directed those who were operating near the battering ram. (13) Khosrow himself, at the head of the army, approached the wall of Petra and encamped here for a siege. (14) The next day, having gone around the wall, he thought it was not too strong and decided to storm it. Having moved the whole army here, he set to work, ordering arrows to be shot at the battlements. (15) The Romans, however, defending themselves, brought into action machines and various missile engines. At first, although the Persians shot much and accurately, they did little harm to the Romans and suffered much from them, since they shot from above. (16) But then (it was evidently fated that Petra should be captured by Khosrow), John, wounded by some chance in the neck, died, and from this the other Romans, losing heart, lost all confidence in themselves. (17) The barbarians returned to their camp, for it was already dusk. The next day they conceived an undermining of the wall in the following way.

(18) The city of Petra is inaccessible partly because of the sea, partly because of the steep cliffs that rise everywhere here. It is because of this that it received its name. (19) Only one road leads to it across the plain, and that is not too wide. On both sides, unusually steep cliffs overhang it. (20) Those who originally built the city took care that part of the wall in this place should not prove convenient for attack, and built here as high walls as possible at each of the cliffs of the entrance. (21) On both sides of the walls they built two towers, but not as usual, but in the following way. (22) In the middle of the building they left no empty space anywhere, but from the ground to the very top they built the towers entirely of huge stones, joined together so that they could not be destroyed by a battering ram or any other engine. Such was the wall of Petra in this place. (23) The Persians, having secretly dug an undermining at the base, found themselves under one of the towers and, having carried out many stones from there, put wood in their place, which they then set on fire. (24) The flame, gradually rising, destroyed the strength of the stones and, having shaken the whole tower, suddenly in one moment brought it down to the ground. (25) The Romans who were on the tower felt what was happening even before it fell to the ground, and, running away, found themselves inside the city wall. (26) The enemy, storming over level ground, would easily have succeeded in capturing the city. (27) Therefore, the Romans, becoming frightened, entered into negotiations with the barbarians and, having taken Khosrow's word concerning their lives and property, voluntarily surrendered themselves and the city. So Khosrow captured Petra. (28) The property of John, which was rather large, he took when he found it, but from no one else did he or any of the Persians take anything. The Romans, preserving what they had, joined the Median army.
549 AD.

II. XVIII. (15) Meanwhile, it became clear that the Persian king Khosrow had concluded a truce with the Romans with the treacherous aim of hoping to take them by surprise thanks to this peace, causing them terrible harm. (16) For in the third year of this truce he conceived the following cunning. There were among the Persians two brothers: Phabrizes and Isdigusna, both holding high positions among them, but in character the most worthless of all Persians and having a reputation as the most skilled in every baseness. (17) Having conceived a sudden attack to capture the city of Dara and to expel all the Colchians from Lazica, placing Persians in their stead, Khosrow chose these men as his assistants for carrying out both undertakings. (18) It seemed to him that it would be a successful and valuable acquisition if he took possession of Colchis and strengthened his possession of it, since, according to his calculations, it would prove useful in many respects to the Persian power. (19) For he would be able to hold Iberia quite safely in the future as well, since they would have no one to seek refuge with in case they revolted against him. (20) For since the most noble of these barbarians together with King Gurgenes had conceived revolt, as I said before, the Persians did not allow them to have their own king, and the Iberians obeyed them against their will, and between them and them there was great suspicion and distrust. (21) It was clear that the Iberians were extremely discontented and, if any favorable opportunity presented itself, they would revolt in the near future.

(22) Moreover, the Persian power would forever be rid of the devastating raids of the Huns neighboring Lazica, whom he [Khosrow] would be able to send against the Roman power more easily and without much trouble, whenever it pleased him, for Lazica is nothing other than an advanced fortification against the barbarians living in the Caucasus. (23) But most of all, he hoped that the Persians would derive benefit from the possession of Lazica because, moving from it, they would be able to make raids both by land and by sea on the localities situated on the so-called Euxine Pontus, to subdue Cappadocia and the neighboring Galatia and Bithynia and then, meeting resistance from no one, to capture Byzantium by a sudden raid. (24) Therefore Khosrow wished to subject Lazica to his power, but he relied least of all on the Laz. (25) For since the Romans had withdrawn from Lazica, most of the Laz were most decisively opposed to the Persians. The fact is that among all other peoples the Persians are distinguished by exceptional peculiarity, and in their character and way of life they are extremely cruel.

(26) Their laws are unacceptable to any of the people, and their commands are completely impracticable. In comparison with the Laz, the difference of their way of thought and life is especially felt, since the Laz more than all other people are devoted to Christianity, while the religion of the Persians is directly opposite to their faith. (27) Moreover, in Lazica there is no salt at all, nor bread, nor wine, nor other earthly goods. (28) All this is brought to them by ships by the Romans living on the seacoast, and the Laz acquire these goods not for gold, but for skins, slaves and all that they have in abundance here. (29) Naturally, deprived of all this, they remained in great irritation. Khosrow knew this and therefore hastened most reliably to prevent their revolt. (30) While he was pondering these plans, it seemed to him that it would be most advantageous to remove as soon as possible the king of the Laz, Gubazes, to expel the Laz from there as a whole tribe and then to place Persians and some other peoples in this country.

II. XXIX. To Lazica, however, Khosrow first of all sent much timber suitable for shipbuilding, telling no one for what purpose he did it, but in words declaring that he had sent it in order to set up machines on the walls of Petra. (2) Then, having selected from among the Persians three hundred warriors and placing Phabrizes, whom I just mentioned, at their head, he sent them to Colchis. Phabrizes he commissioned to destroy Gubazes, but somehow secretly. Everything else would be his, Khosrow's, affair. (3) When this timber was delivered to Lazica, it suddenly caught fire from a lightning strike and was reduced to ashes. Phabrizes, however, arriving with his three hundred warriors in Lazica, set about carrying out Khosrow's command concerning Gubazes. (4) It happened that one of the noble Colchians by the name of Pharsans somehow insulted Gubazes, arousing on his side such strong hatred that he dared not show himself before him. (5) Learning of this, Phabrizes called Pharsans to him and in conversation with him informed him of all his intentions, asking him how best to go about this matter. (6) After consulting, they decided that Phabrizes, remaining in the city of Petra, would call Gubazes there to him, ostensibly to inform him of what the king proposed to do in the interests of the Laz. (7) However, Pharsans secretly let Gubazes know that a plot was being formed against him. Therefore Gubazes did not appear at all before Phabrizes and decided already openly to revolt from the Persians. (8) Phabrizes, however, having ordered the rest of the Persians to take care with all their might of the protection of Petra and to prepare as carefully as possible for a siege, himself with his three hundred warriors, having achieved nothing, returned home. (9) Meanwhile, Gubazes, having brought to the notice of Basileus Justinian the state of the affairs of the Laz, asked him to forgive them for their former offenses and to help them in every way to free themselves from the power of the Persians, since by their own forces they could not overcome the might of the Persians.

(10) Hearing this, Basileus Justinian was greatly delighted and sent <549 AD> to help the Laz seven thousand men under the command of Dagisthaeus and one thousand Tzani. (11) Arriving in the land of the Colchians, together with the Laz and Gubazes they encamped near the fortification of Petra and began the siege. (12) Since the Persians in Petra defended themselves very courageously and since the Persians had managed to stock up on a sufficient amount of provisions, the siege had to take much time.

(13) Troubled by this, Khosrow sent there a large army of cavalry and infantry, to command which he appointed Mermeroes. Learning of this, Gubazes, after consulting with Dagisthaeus, did what I shall now relate. (14) The Boa River flows out of the borders of the Armenians living near Pharangium, not far from the borders of the Tzani. At first it flows to the right for a considerable distance, being not wide and easily fordable by anyone, up to the place where on the right side are the borders of Iberia, and straight ahead ends the Caucasus Range. (15) Here live many different tribes, among them the Alans and Abasgians, who are Christians and from ancient times are in friendship with the Romans, then the Zikhs, and behind them the Huns, who are called Sabirs.

(16) When, however, the river reaches the place where the borders of Iberia and the Caucasus are, many other streams flow into it and it becomes much wider and flows, having received from here the name Phasis instead of Boa; from this place it is navigable up to the so-called Euxine Pontus, into which it flows. On both sides of it is located Lazica.

(17) But only the country lying on its right bank is inhabited by the local population, up to the borders of Iberia. (18) All the villages of the Laz are located here, on this side of the river, and here from ancient times they built towns, among them the most fortified of them Archaeopolis, Sebastopolis and the fortress of Pitiunt, and on the very borders of the Iberians Skanda and Sarapanis. The most significant cities here are Rhodopolis and Mochiris. (19) On the left bank of the river, the borders of Lazica extend for a distance of one day's journey for a pedestrian unburdened by weight, but this land is completely deserted. Neighboring this country are the Romans, who are called Pontic. (20) Within the borders of Lazica, where there are no settlements, Basileus Justinian in my time built the city of Petra, (21) where John by the nickname Tzibus established a monopoly, as I have related before, proving to be the cause of the revolt of the Laz. (22) To the south of the city of Petra immediately are the borders of the Romans. Here are located very populous places: the so-called Rizeum, Athens and many others as far as Trapezus. (23) When the Laz led Khosrow, they crossed the Boa River and, having the Phasis on their right, thus approached Petra, doing so supposedly out of fear that they would have to cross the Phasis River with great difficulty and enormous loss of time, but in fact because of their unwillingness to show the Persians their dwellings. (24) For Lazica is equally difficult to pass on both sides of the river. (25) On both sides of this locality rise very high rocks, forming gorges here for a great space. The Romans, speaking in Greek, call such passages clisurae. (26) Since Lazica was not guarded at that time, the Persians with their guides very easily reached Petra.

(27) Now, however, Gubazes, learning of the Persian campaign, instructed Dagisthaeus to send someone there so that they would carefully guard the gorge situated below the Phasis River, but by no means raising the siege until they captured both Petra and the Persians in it.

(28) He himself, with the whole army of the Colchians, moved to the borders of Lazica to guard with all his might the defiles there. (29) Long before this, he had succeeded in concluding an alliance with the Alans and Sabirs, who for three centenaria agreed not only to protect the land of the Laz from devastation together with him, but also to depopulate Iberia so that in future the Persians could not move from there. He promised that the basileus would give this money. (30) He himself, having informed Basileus Justinian of the treaty he had concluded, asked him to send the barbarians the money and somehow help the Laz, who were extremely ruined. (31) He said that the treasury owed him pay for ten years, since he, enrolled among the court silentiarii, had received nothing from there since the time Khosrow set foot on the land of Colchis. (32) Basileus Justinian intended to fulfill his request, but, occupied at that time with other matters, did not have time to send the money at the proper time. This is what Gubazes was undertaking. (33) Dagisthaeus, however, being a young man and quite unsuitable for waging war with the Persians, acted under the circumstances by no means as he should have. (34) He should have sent the greater part of the army to the defiles, and perhaps even been present himself at this military undertaking, but he sent only a hundred men there, as if the matter were something unimportant; he himself, however, continued to besiege Petra with the whole army, but quite unsuccessfully, although there were few enemies left. (35) At first there were no less than fifteen hundred of them, but since for a long time they were struck by the Romans and Laz storming the walls, and they themselves showed valor greater than all other peoples known to us, many of them perished and they came to a very small number. (36) Not knowing what to do, they fell into despair and sat, doing nothing. The Romans, however, made a small undermining near the wall, and the wall immediately collapsed. (37) However, behind this place there turned out to be a house not separated from the wall, which covered the whole collapsed part of the fortification, (38) replacing the besieged with a wall and thus ensuring them complete safety. (39) But the Romans were not at all troubled by this, for knowing that, having made a similar undermining in another place, they would easily take the city, they were inflamed with still greater hopes. (40) Therefore Dagisthaeus, reporting to the basileus what had happened, indicated in advance the reward that was due to him for the victory, giving to understand what gifts the basileus should bestow on himself and his brother, for he would take Petra in the very near future. (41) However, the Persians, contrary to all expectation, very resolutely repelled the assault of the Romans and the Tzani, although very few of them remained. (42) Having achieved nothing by the attack, the Romans again set about undermining, and by this work they achieved that the foundation of the wall was no longer on the ground, but for the most part hung over emptiness and, as might be expected, the fortification was about to collapse at any moment. (43) And if Dagisthaeus had immediately ordered a fire to be set under the foundation of the wall, the city would have been taken at once. But he, waiting for the fulfillment of his hopes from the basileus, did nothing, delayed and wasted time.

II. XXX. Passing the borders of Iberia, Mermeroes with the whole Persian army moved further, having the Phasis River on his right, since he did not wish to go past the populated places of Lazica, so as not to meet difficulties on his way. (2) He hastened to save Petra and the Persians in it, although part of the wall had suddenly collapsed to the ground: as I have said, it hung in the air. (3) Then fifty men from the Roman army voluntarily burst into the city, with loud shouts glorifying Basileus Justinian as victor. (4) They were led by a young man, an Armenian by birth, named John, son of Thomas, by the nickname Guzes. (5) This is the same Thomas who by the basileus's order built many fortifications around Lazica and was the commander of the troops there: the basileus considered him a prudent man. (6) So John, when the Persians engaged him in battle, was wounded and immediately returned with his men to the camp, since no one from the Roman army came to his aid. (7) Meanwhile, a certain Persian by the name of Mirranes, who commanded the garrison in Petra, being concerned about the fate of the city, went to Dagisthaeus and, pouring out flattering and deceitful speeches before him, easily gave his consent to surrender the city to the Romans soon. Thus he managed by deceit to achieve that the Roman army did not immediately enter the city. (8) When Mermeroes' army reached the defiles, they were met there by a Roman detachment of a hundred men. The Romans defended themselves bravely, repelling the enemy who was trying to enter this narrow passage. (9) The Persians did not yield to them and advanced further, replacing the slain with fresh forces and stubbornly forcing their way through the gorge. (10) More than a thousand Persians were killed, while the Romans grew tired of the slaughter and, since the Persians overpowered them by their mass, they retreated and, quickly climbing to the summits of the mountains there, found their salvation. (11) Learning of this, Dagisthaeus immediately raised the siege and, without giving the army any order, rushed to the Phasis River. All the Romans followed him, leaving all their property in the camp. (12) The Persians, seeing what was happening, opened the gates and, coming out of the city, approached the enemy's tents, intending to plunder them. (13) However, the Tzani (for they did not follow Dagisthaeus) ran to the camp and without any difficulty put the enemy to flight, killing many of them. (14) The Persians, rushing back, returned within their walls, and the Tzani, having plundered the Roman camp, immediately withdrew to Rizeum and from there, having reached Athens, through Trapezus returned home.

(15) Mermeroes and the Persian army arrived here on the ninth day after Dagisthaeus's retreat. They found in Petra, of the remaining garrison, three hundred and fifty Persians wounded and unfit for battle, and only one hundred and fifty unharmed. All the rest had perished. (16) The survivors did not throw the corpses over the walls and, although they choked from the unbearable stench, they endured all this incredibly patiently so as not to increase the enemy's ardor in the siege by revealing to them their heavy losses. (17) Mermeroes said mockingly that the state of the Romans deserved tears and lamentations, for they had come to such weakness that they could by no means overcome a hundred and fifty Persians, not even protected by walls. (18) He hurriedly set about restoring the collapsed part of the wall, and since he had at hand neither lime nor anything else suitable for building, he devised the following. (19) Filling canvas sacks with sand, in which the Persians had brought their provisions to Colchis, he ordered them to be placed instead of stones; thus the sacks replaced the wall here. (20) Having chosen three thousand of the most warlike soldiers, he left them here [in Petra] and, having supplied them with provisions, though for a short time, ordered them to take care of the construction of the fortification. He himself with the rest of the army set off back.

(21) But since on the way by which he had come here it was impossible to obtain any provisions, and all that the army had taken out of Iberia he had left in Petra, he decided to go another way, through the mountains here, where, as he learned, there were inhabited places, plundering which the army could subsist. (22) During their advance, one of the famous Laz by the name of Phubelis, bringing Dagisthaeus with two thousand Romans, attacked the resting Persians from an ambush. They made a sudden attack on the Persians, killing those of them who were tending horses, and, taking the horses, quickly withdrew. Thus Mermeroes with the Persian army advanced from here.

(23) Gubazes, however, even learning of what had happened to the Romans at Petra and at the defiles, did not give way to fear and did not leave the gorge which he was guarding, believing that here for him was the greatest hope of salvation. (24) He understood that, although the Persians, having pushed back the Romans beyond the Phasis, were able to pass through the gorge and reach Petra, they were not able to do any harm to this part of the land of the Laz, for they had no means of crossing the Phasis, especially since they had no ships. (25) This river here is deeper than any other and unusually wide. (26) Its current is so swift that, flowing into the sea, it flows for a long time without mixing with the sea water. Those sailing in these places can have completely fresh water even in the open sea. (27) Moreover, on the northern side of the river, the Laz built guard fortresses in many places, so that the enemy, even if he crossed the river, could not land on their land. (28) Meanwhile, Basileus Justinian sent to the tribe of the Sabirs the agreed sum of money, and gave another to Gubazes and the Laz. (29) Long before this, he had sent another considerable army, which had not yet arrived there. He appointed Recithangus, a prudent man and experienced in military affairs, as its commander. Thus things stood there.

(30) Mermeroes, finding himself, as I have said, in the mountains, decided to replenish here the provisions of Petra. He considered that the garrison of three thousand men there would by no means have enough of the provisions he had brought with him. (31) However, what they came across was barely enough to feed such an army, for it numbered no less than thirty thousand, and therefore he managed to send only small supplies from here to Petra. After reflection, he considered it better to withdraw the greater part of the army from the borders of Colchis, leaving here only a few, who would send a significant part of what they came across to the garrison in Petra, being quite satisfied with the rest. (32) So, having chosen five thousand men, he ordered them to remain here, appointing as their commander Phabrizes and three others. (33) He did not consider it necessary to leave a larger number of soldiers here, for no enemy was to be seen anywhere.

(34) When these five thousand approached close to the borders of Lazica, they all encamped on the bank of the Phasis River; moving from there in small detachments, they plundered the places there. (35) Learning of this, Gubazes sent word to Dagisthaeus to move quickly to his aid, since together they would be able to inflict a major defeat on the enemy. (36) Dagisthaeus did so. He went forward with the whole Roman army, having the Phasis River on his left, until he reached the place where on the opposite bank of the river the Laz were encamped. (37) Just at this place it was possible to ford the Phasis, of which the Romans and Persians, knowing the places there poorly, did not even suspect. The Laz, to whom this was well known, unexpectedly crossed the river and joined the Roman army. Meanwhile, the Persians, having selected from among themselves a thousand especially distinguished soldiers, sent them forward as scouts so that no enemy could attack the camp and do them harm. (38) Two of them, finding themselves in front, unexpectedly fell into the hands of the enemy, telling him everything. (39) Therefore the Romans and Laz suddenly attacked this thousand: none of them managed to escape, but most were killed, some of the Persians, however, Gubazes' and Dagisthaeus' men took prisoner and from them were able to learn the size of the Persian army, the distance at which it was, and how matters stood in it. (40) Rising with the whole army, the Romans and Laz moved against them, intending to make their attack in the dead of night. The number of Romans and Laz reached fourteen thousand. (41) The Persians, who had no thought of the enemy, were sleeping soundly. They were convinced that it was impossible to ford the river and that their thousand, meeting resistance from no one anywhere, had gone somewhere quite far.

(42) And suddenly early in the morning the Romans and Laz attacked them, when some were still asleep, others had just woken and were still undressed lying on their bedding. (43) Therefore none of them had time even to think of resistance, but most were seized and killed, some the enemy took alive, among them one of the commanders, and only very few, fleeing under cover of darkness, escaped. (44) The Romans with the Laz captured their camp and all the standards, took much weapons and money, and also captured a large number of horses and mules. (45) Continuing the pursuit further, they went deep into Iberia. Meeting there other Persians as well, they killed many. (46) Thus the Persians were driven out of Lazica. The Romans and Laz found here much provisions, especially flour, which the barbarians had brought from Iberia to send it to Petra. (47) Leaving a considerable detachment of Laz in the gorge so that the Persians could by no means deliver provisions to Petra, they returned back with all the rest of the booty and prisoners. (48) Thus ended the fourth year of the truce between the Romans and Persians, and this was in the twenty-third year (549 AD) of the sole rule of Basileus Justinian. COPY

Materials:

Procopius of Caesarea "War with the Persians. War with the Vandals. Secret History." M. 1993.

King of the Abkhazians. He begins the list of rulers of Abkhazia, called the "Divan of the Abkhazian Kings." The reign of Anos can be dated to the beginning of the 7th century AD. He is considered the founder of the Anosid dynasty (Anuaa, Ancha, Anchba), the grand princely house of Anchabadze (Anchabadze), which ruled in Abkhazia until the 8th century and gave rise to the house of Leonids (Loo, Alou).

The male name Anos is also attested in the Byzantine agricultural encyclopedia of the 10th century "Geoponica," where it is said that a certain fisherman by the name of Anos used a special bait to catch large river fish. However, the Greek origin of the name Anos is still doubtful.

In all probability, this name originates from Iranian languages. Researchers note the following in this connection. In Old Persian an - aуsa, Middle Persian nos, Pahlavi Anos, New Persian anush/anusha, Sogdian nosak, Avestan anaosa, Ossetian anus/anos mean respectively: "immortal," "elixir of life," "blessed," "eternal," "indestructible," etc. Thus, Anos — an Iranian name of Abkhazian adaptation, has a transparent semantic structure — "eternal," "immortal" — therefore it can be counted among the mystified names.


Materials:

All rulers of Abkhazia

Abkhazian Kingdom. 786 CE
Anthroponymic repertoire of the "Divan of the Abkhazian kings". G. A. Amichba
Chronicle of the Abkhazian kings. F. Jordania 1902
Bgazhba O. Kh., Lakoba S. Z. History of Abkhazia from ancient times to the present day. 2007
Culture and ideology of early medieval Abkhazia (5th–10th centuries). Amichba 1999
"History of Abkhazia in dates". T. A. Achugba 2011
Circumnavigation of the Euxine Sea. Flavius Arrian
Naturalis Historia. Pliny the Elder 77–79. Latin-English 1969
Reports of ancient Greek and Latin writers about Scythia and the Caucasus. Latyshev 1947
Constantine Porphyrogenitus. On the Administration of the Empire: Text, translation, commentary. Litavrin 1991

The results of a study using the BATWING method, Balanovsky et al. 2011 ^[1], revealed that the divergence of the Circassian and Shapsug populations began 1400 years ago.

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^[1] Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region. Balanovsky 2011. Supplementary Data. Supplementary Figure 4

The Arabs drove the Khazars out of Transcaucasia and established themselves there until the end of the 9th century.


Materials:

History of Adygea. Gubzhokov 2009

Khan Kubrat led a new state in the Azov region – "Great Bulgaria." After the death of Khan Kubrat, "Great Bulgaria" split into "Bulgaria" [between the Sea of Azov and Kuban], "Danube Bulgaria" and "Volga Bulgaria." The remnants of the Bulgars of the Kuban region moved to the upper reaches of the Kuban and influenced [together with the Alans] the ethnogenesis of modern Karachays and Balkars.


Materials:

History of Adygea. Gubzhokov 2009