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• G2a: Megalithic cultures of Europe, Helladic Greece, the Balkans and La Almagra pottery in Spain.
• The number of representatives of G2a2b2 decreases in the Yamnaya culture.
• J2 and G (M201) in Mesopotamia.
• G (M201) in the Levant.

Connections:

• With the Abashevo culture and proto-Cimmerians and Thracians. ^{[Khudaverdyan 2012]}
• Through the presence of G2a with the Megalithic cultures of Europe.
• With the Dolmen culture.
• With Hattian megalithic structures.

Sources:

Maciamo Hay

An archaeological culture of the Chalcolithic era (4500–3500 BC), widespread in the steppes of the Azov region between the Dnieper and the Don. To the west it bordered the Trypillia culture. Named after the island-rock Sredny Stog (Zaporizhzhia), where it was first discovered by the Dneprostroy complex expedition in 1928. Developed on the basis of the Dnieper-Donets culture and evolved into the Yamnaya culture. More details.

The oldest of the archaeological cultures of the Predynastic period in Upper Egypt, existing around 4500 BC. The culture is named after the area of Der-Tasa on the east bank of the Nile between the cities of Asyut and Akhmim, where burials of this culture were found.

The Tasian culture produced characteristic "black-topped pottery." This was reddish-brown pottery whose upper part and interior were polished black. This pottery plays an important role in the dating of Predynastic Egypt. Since all dates associated with the Predynastic period are tentative, Flinders Petrie developed a system he called "Sequence Dating," with which it is possible to establish, if not an absolute, then at least a relative date for any of the Predynastic sites based on the shape of pottery handles.

As the Predynastic period developed, the handles of ceramic vessels evolved from functional to ornamental, and the presence of pottery with functional or ornamental handles in a given archaeological site can play an important role in dating that site. Due to the lack of noticeable differences between the pottery of the Tasian and Badarian cultures, the Tasian culture roughly coincides with the Badarian in the interval between periods 21 and 29 of Petrie's relative dating scale for Predynastic Egypt.

G (L91): Sardinia, Genetic ancestors of Ötzi from the Tyrolean Alps.


Sources:

Distinguishing the co-ancestries of haplogroup G Y-chromosomes in the populations of Europe and the Caucasus. Rootsi 2012

The Pitted Ware culture — an archaeological culture of the Late Chalcolithic era of the Western Caucasus (Krasnodar Krai, Republic of Adygea, Karachay-Cherkessia, Stavropol Krai) 4500/4400–3000 BC. Until approximately the mid-1980s, it was not distinguished from the Maykop culture of the Early Bronze Age. Settlements studied to varying degrees are mainly localized in mountainous areas (foothills) on both sides of the Greater Caucasus Range. An alternative name is Darkveti-Meshokov culture. Only one significant site has been studied so far on the Kuban Plain — the settlement of Svobodnoye. More details.

An archaeological culture of the Chalcolithic era, widespread on the southern slopes of the Central Caucasus (modern territory of Azerbaijan, Agdam District), dated to 4350–4000 BC. The Leyla-Tepe culture includes the settlement at Leyla-Tepe, the lower layer of the Berikldeebi settlement, the settlements of Poylu I, Poylu II, Beyuk-Kesik I, Beyuk-Kesik II, Agyly Dere, and the Soyugbulag kurgans.

One of the features — along with other types of archaeological sites, burials in ceramic vessels were also identified. Similar jar burials in the South Caucasus are also found in Western Georgia in the Jar Burial culture.

The Leyla-Tepe culture is genetically well linked to the North Ubaid Late Chalcolithic sites, in particular, to the settlements of the Eastern Anatolia region (Arslantepe, Korucu Tepe, Tepecik, etc.). The settlement of Leyla-Tepe is a typical Near Eastern settlement — extremely crowded, houses built right next to each other (a mud-brick village with mud-brick walls).

According to many Russian scientists, the bearers of the Leyla-Tepe culture were Proto-Maykopians, i.e., the creators of the Maykop culture, who migrated to the northern slopes of the Central Caucasus, later due to unfavorable climatic conditions.

The Syrian expedition of the Russian Academy of Sciences revealed the similarity of artifacts of the Maykop and Leyla-Tepe cultures with those recently found during excavations of the ancient city of Tell Hazna I in northern Syria, whose construction dates to the 4th millennium BC.

Accordingly, it is assumed that the sites of the Leyla-Tepe culture indicate the migration of tribes of the Ubaid-Uruk circle of the Middle East to the Southern and then to the Northern Caucasus.

Analyses of ancient DNA from burials in Germany, Derenburg (Meerenstieg II) revealed the presence of a man with haplogroup G2a3. This is the period of the Linear Pottery Culture in Germany.

In all early Neolithic cultures for which archaeogenetic Y-DNA analysis of remains has been performed to date (Linear Pottery Culture in Germany, Remedello in Italy and Cardial Ware in southwestern France and Spain), carriers of G2a have been found, which is a possible argument in favor of their close connection with the emergence and development of animal husbandry and agriculture.


Results of all known ancient European Y-DNA samples from Early and Middle Neolithic sites:

G2a - 66.5% (n=6)
F - 22% (n=2)
E1b1b - 11% (n=1)


Results of all known ancient European Y-DNA samples from Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites:

G2a - 84% (n=21)
R1b - 8% (n=2)
I2 - 8% (n=2)


Materials:

Ancient DNA of Europe
Etruscans, Sea Peoples and haplogroup G2a3. Mitridat 2010

According to the results of lexico-statistical reconstruction of the evolution of North Caucasian languages, Balanovsky et al. 2011 ^[1], the divergence of proto-Abkhaz-Adyghe and Nakh-Dagestanian languages began 6240 years ago.

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^[1] Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region. Balanovsky 2011. Supplementary Data. Supplementary Figure 2

› North Caucasian languages
› 4200 BC. Nakh-Dagestanian, Hurro-Urartian languages and Tyrrhenian languages (Etruscan,
Minoan, Pelasgian, Philistine and others)
› 4200 BC. Abkhaz-Adyghe

More details

4200 BC — G2a2b2 (mainly G2a2b2a-P303) together with R1b-M269/L23 participated in the invasion of Europe. Local representatives of G2a2b1 took refuge from them in mountainous regions.


Sources:

Maciamo Hay

Kazbek is an extinct stratovolcano, the easternmost five-thousander of the Caucasus, located in the eastern part of the Central Caucasus, on the border of Russia and Georgia, in the eastern part of the Khokh Range. The last eruption occurred in 750 BC ^[1]

In 2004, volcanic ash was discovered in Mezmaiskaya Cave, attributed to the eruption of Kazbek, which by geological standards occurred synchronously with the supereruption of the Phlegraean Fields in Italy and the eruption of Mount St. Anna in the Southern Carpathians about 40 thousand years ago, which caused the onset of a "volcanic winter" and became the cause of Neanderthal extinction.


Notes:

^[1] Global Volcanism Programm