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4500—3000 BC

Pitted Pearl Ware culture — an archaeological culture of the Late Eneolithic of the Western Caucasus (Krasnodar Krai, Republic of Adygea, Karachay-Cherkessia, Stavropol Krai) 4500/4400—3000 BC. Until approximately the mid-1980s, it was not distinguished from the Maikop culture of the Early Bronze Age. Settlements studied to varying degrees are mainly localized in mountainous areas (foothills) on both sides of the Greater Caucasus Range. An alternative name is Darkveti-Meshoko culture. On the Kuban plain, only one significant site has been studied so far — the settlement of Svobodnoye.

The predecessor of this culture in the Western Caucasus was the population of the Neolithic and Early Eneolithic, whose sites have not yet been sufficiently studied and published.

Although the PPW culture has a number of parallels in Transcaucasia, its origin is more associated with the steppe Early Eneolithic cultures: the later sites of the second period of the Azov-Dnieper culture (5200—4800 BC), the earliest Sredny Stog culture (from 5340 BC) with the Mariupol burial ground (5329 ± 72 BC), and the Khvalynsk sites of the Volga region (5000—4600 BC). This period corresponds to Tripolye A. The earliest example of steppe influence in the North Caucasus is found in the Early Eneolithic Nalchik burial ground (5100—4900/4400 BC), which is synchronous with settlements in the Terek basin (Agubekovo, Tyalling, Myshtulatalagat).

If we take the period of widespread distribution of the PPW culture proper, similar features (pottery decoration, stone bracelets) are found in synchronous Eneolithic settlements of combed pottery in the Terek basin and in settlements of Western Georgia (Dzudzuana — Tetramitsa). These influences are visible in pottery from sites distant from the main region of the PPW culture — the Sochi-Adler area and the Zamok settlement near Kislovodsk.

On the southern slope of the Main Caucasus Range, the PPW culture in its early and middle periods occupied part of the territory of Abkhazia (caves of the Kodori, Bzyb, and Mzymta gorges). But in the Novosvobodnaya period, a sharp increase in the influence of the coastal Abkhaz culture is noted (Bzyb Cave, shelter near the Blue Lake, platform IV of the entrance of Vorontsovskaya Cave). Later, the Abkhaz culture completely occupied these territories.

In the lowland settlement of Svobodnoye, on the contrary, influence from the northwest is traced, from the steppe Proto-Yamnaya cultures, which also had some similar elements with the PPW culture. Therefore, although the sites of the culture definitely represent a certain material and spiritual unity, some similarity with neighboring Eneolithic societies is observed on the periphery. And it is possible that in the future, smaller cultural groups will be distinguished within the PPW culture.

Chronologically, the early period of the PPW culture falls within the period 4500/4400—4000/3900 BC, which corresponds to the end of Tripolye BI, Tripolye BII, sites of the Novodanilovka type of the Sredny Stog culture, and the time of the earliest mounds in the south of Eastern Europe. In the Middle East, this is the late period of the Ubaid culture (Yarim Tepe III; layers older than Arslan Tepe VII; older than the Uruk period of Mesopotamia).

In the middle and late stages, the PPW culture coexists with the Maikop culture or, in other terminology, the Maikop-Novosvobodnaya community (3900—2900/2800 BC). Most likely, this is how the syncretic mountain variant of the late stage of the Maikop-Novosvobodnaya community was formed, which some researchers (A. D. Rezepkin) consider an independent culture (Novosvobodnaya culture). (On the plain, the Maikop culture retained its original features longer until it was replaced by the North Caucasian culture of the Middle Bronze Age). Moreover, the influence of the PPW culture is noticeable even in the dolmen culture that replaced Novosvobodnaya. However, some scholars hold a different, rather radical, view on the periodization and chronology of the region under consideration.

Settlements and dwellings

The population of the PPW culture was sedentary and had long-term settlements (unlike the mobile-sedentary Maikop people). In mountainous areas, settlements are located exclusively on elevations, which are often bounded on one side by a steep slope or precipice. The other side, with a gentle or even flat relief, could be fortified with a wall of dry-laid rubble stone. On the plain, the settlement was pressed against the river, and on the field side it was fenced with a rampart and a dry ditch. On top of the rampart, apparently, there was also a wooden fence. Dwellings were built in a circle, along the fortifications. Inside, there was free space — sometimes quite significant — where, apparently, livestock was kept.

The dwellings were only wattle-and-daub, possibly also mud-brick. Wall collapses and clay plaster on floors have been recorded. In grottos, walls were built, at least partially, of stone. Hearths were sometimes framed with limestone slabs or, as is assumed, with special clay blocks. Portable braziers were used. On one occasion, a mud-brick oven recessed into the ground and under large stones was discovered. Household pits were common.

Economy
The economy was based on agriculture and cattle breeding. There was more cattle and pigs. Fewer sheep and goats. Although on the Black Sea sites, on the contrary, there was more small livestock. There were dogs and possibly cats. There were no horses. They engaged in hunting (red deer, roe deer, wild boar, mouflon, bison, donkey, bear, badger, wolf, fox, hare, goose, duck, small birds). Fishing was developed. Turtles and mollusks were also used for food.

Agriculture is evidenced by the presence of grain grinders and bone hoes. In some areas of the Western and Central Caucasus, the presence of ancient agricultural terraces has been identified (Kislovodsk basin of Stavropol Krai, Karachay-Cherkessia, Krasnodar Krai, and North Ossetia). Their construction began around 4400—3500 BC, i.e., during the early and middle periods of the PPW culture.

Weaving existed, as evidenced by clay and stone spindle whorls. The level of craft development was typical for that period. Trade contacts are evidenced by the presence of imported obsidian, carnelian, and sea shells. Obsidian was delivered from Transcaucasia, 600—650 km away, and copper for steppe settlements — from the Balkans.

Too little is known about metallurgy. In the earliest period, apparently, only a very small amount of ready-made imported copper products was used. In the later period, clay ladles and slag are already found.

Material culture

Pottery — typical for the Eneolithic, handmade, without clay elutriation, the clay paste is almost always saturated with various types of temper. Vessels — round-bottomed, pointed-bottomed, with a flattened bottom. In the late stage, flat-bottomed vessels and vessels with handles appear. Miniature vessels, cups, vases, and bowls are found. There were strainers used for making cheese. The main feature is the presence on the shoulders of some vessels of decoration in the form of pearls — convexities pressed from the inside on wet clay. This gave the name to the culture itself. Although other decoration is also found: applied rollers (smooth and with pinches), nipple-shaped appliqués, incising, stamping, or puncturing. Sometimes burnishing and painting with dark brown paint were used.

Ceramic portable braziers served for round-bottomed vessels. Clay blocks in the form of cones and egg-shaped ones were found, apparently intended for building hearths. There is small plastic art — figurines of people and animals, often extremely schematic. Beads (or fishing weights) and spindle whorls were made from clay.

Stone was the main material for tools. Of the knapped rocks, almost only flint was used. Obsidian is very rare. The most massive products are scrapers. Many large sickle inserts with a straight blade are found. There are spearheads, dart tips, and arrowheads. The earliest arrowheads are in the form of elongated triangles, with a straight or slightly concave base. Conversely, some preferred tanged dart and arrowheads. In the late stage, squat asymmetrical triangles with a strongly concave base appeared. These are apparently military tips, reminiscent of the barbed products of the Novosvobodnaya people. A find of an asymmetrical tip of the Novosvobodnaya type is also known. Flint axes are rare. Microliths are present, mainly segments, although there are triangles, trapezoids, and rectangles. The rest of the flint inventory is typical for settlements of this era. In the late stage, there was very little flint in the settlement layers.


Stone axe from Mount Shakhan near the village of Novosvobodnaya
Polished tools and products are represented by wedge-shaped axes and adzes made of serpentinite, less commonly diabase, slate, and other rocks. A distinctive feature of the PPW culture is also the presence of fragments of stone bracelets, massive or flat. Most often they are made of serpentinite and slate, but ceramic ones are also known. There are grinders of various forms made of the same serpentinite or any pebbles. Of course, there are many grain grinders, granite ones, made of hard sandstone, etc. Only three times were stone products with large drilling found (maces, a hammer). There is one find of a fragment of the so-called "horse-head sceptre".

Bone was used to make insert harpoons, awls, pendants, beads, fishhooks, polishers and spatulas for pottery, dice, spoons, adzes. There is a find of a bone arrowhead. Pendants made of plates of split wild boar tusks were popular. Fishhooks were also made from them. Teardrop-shaped pendants were made from deer teeth or imitated with bone.

Metal is extremely rare in the layers of the early and middle periods of the PPW culture. Finds at all settlements include awls, occasional beads, a small plate of unclear purpose, and a small ring of flat section. In later layers, a temple ring, a small tanged knife, a copper knife, a chisel, and several awls were also found. There is a single find of a temple ring made of gold wire.

Burial rite
The few known burials (of the early period) show that they could be buried under the floor of a dwelling (in a cave), but how often this was practiced is unknown. The graves are cramped, lined and covered with stones. The pose of the deceased is strongly contracted, with knees of the legs pressed to the torso and one hand to the face. The second hand is extended along the body. On the right or left side. But initially, it is not excluded, he could have been on his back. Orientation — head to the southwest or west. Inventory is present but scarce. Sprinkling with ochre was not practiced — occasional marks and not always. The contraction may also be lesser. A burial of a single skull in a ceramic vessel is known (site Psoy-1).