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During the Last Glacial Maximum, the world ocean level was 120–135 meters lower than today because water accumulated as ice in glacial sheets 3–4 km thick, thus being removed from the hydrosphere. As a result, many modern shallow shelf seas did not exist (the Yellow Sea, North Sea, Persian Gulf and Gulf of Siam), while others were significantly smaller than today.

At this time, glaciation covered most of North America, the Scandinavian Peninsula, northern Europe and the East European Plain. The Alps and Himalayas, as well as the southern tips of South America and Australia, were covered in ice.

The last glacial epoch ended between 15,000 and 10,000 BC (the Younger Dryas and Allerød warming). In February 2012, the US National Academy of Sciences published a report confirming a meteorite impact in Mexico 13,000 years ago, which caused the Younger Dryas and mass extinction of fauna.

Kebaran culture — an archaeological culture of the eastern Mediterranean, existing 18–10 thousand years BC. Named after finds in the Kebara Cave south of Haifa. Its bearers were a highly mobile nomadic people of hunters and gatherers in the Levant and Sinai Peninsula, who used geometric microliths for tool production. Unlike later cultures of this region, they did not yet use mortars and grindstones for flour production, although their tools were highly diverse. In winter, they settled in caves and artificial stone shelters on lake shores, and in summer they dispersed across the territory. The culture belongs to the Upper Paleolithic. It is considered a predecessor or even direct ancestor of the Natufian culture.

Presumed place of origin: from India to the Caucasus

Haplogroup R-M198 is divided into two distant distribution segments, one in South Asia around India, the other in Eastern Europe around Poland and Ukraine.

Among Abkhazians, it constitutes 2.4%.

More about haplogroup R-M198

Materials:

Sources in the "Library" section
FTDNA Caucasian Project
FTDNA Adygian Project
FTDNA Georgian Project
FTDNA Ossetian Project
Gene pools of Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples, Georgians and Armenians. Teuchezh 2013
What DNA genealogy says about Caucasians. Klyosov 2013
Genetic diversity of the Caucasus population. Dibirova 2007
Origin of haplogroup G2a1a among Ossetians. Sabitov 2011
Litvinov 2010. Study of the genetic structure of the Western Caucasus
Balanovsky 2012. Variability of the gene pool in space and time
Balanovsky 2011. Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus
Data on Y-DNA haplogroups of the Western Caucasus. Litvinov 2007
Data on Y-DNA haplogroups of the Western Caucasus. Balanovsky 2012
Balanovsky 2011. Evolution of North Caucasus Languages
Balanovsky 2011. Genetic reconstruction of the evolution of North Caucasus
Balanovsky 2011. Supplementary Data
Balanovsky 2011. Supplementary Table
Genetics of Abkhazians and the Western Caucasus

J-CTS7683 (J2a1, J-PF4610) split from J-M410 18,000 BC, MRCA 17,000 BC > J-FTA28008 split from J-BY175871 500 BC, MRCA 400 BC 1858—1933. Daut Arshba (Ҷыхә-иԥацәа), Atishadu, Abkhazia > Arshba

Osijek 5078 (J-CTS7683) — a man who lived between 4699 and 4545 BC in the Middle Neolithic era. His remains were found in the region now known as Osijek, Croatia. He belonged to the Neolithic cultural group of the Balkans. His direct maternal line belongs to mitochondrial haplogroup H10-x*. Source: I5078 from the Allen Ancient Genome Diversity Project; Mathieson et al. 2018.

J-Z6046 (J2a1b) split from J-CTS7683 17,000 BC, MRCA 14,000 BC > J-FTA28008 split from J-BY175871 500 BC, MRCA 400 BC 1858—1933. Daut Arshba (Ҷыхә-иԥацәа), Atishadu, Abkhazia > Arshba

North Ossetia 13%, Abkhazia 5%, Adygea 3%, Georgia 3%, Kabardino-Balkaria 1%, Karachay-Cherkessia 1%, Chechnya 1%, Romania 1%, Italy (Sardinia) 1%, Moldova 1%

Barcın 6 (J-Z6046) — a man who lived between 6224 and 6074 BC in the Middle Neolithic era. His remains were found in the region now known as Barcın (Bursa Province, Turkey). He belonged to the cultural group "Ceramic Neolithic of Northwest Anatolia." His direct maternal line belongs to mitochondrial haplogroup N1b1a*. Source: I0708 from the Allen Ancient Genome Diversity Project; Mathieson et al. 2015.

Çatalhöyük 120 (J-Z6046) — a boy who lived between 6000 and 5500 BC in the Late Neolithic era. His remains were found in the region now known as Çatalhöyük, Küçükköy, Turkey. He belonged to the cultural group "Neolithic Anatolia." His direct maternal line belongs to mitochondrial haplogroup K1a4. Source: cch120 from Yüncü et al. 2025.

Asparn Schletz 10 (J-Z6046) — a man who lived between 5500 and 5000 BC in the Early Neolithic era. His remains were found in the region now known as Schletz, Asparn an der Zaya, Austria. He belonged to the cultural group "Central European Neolithic." His direct maternal line belongs to mitochondrial haplogroup K1a. Source: Asp10 from Hofmanova et al. 2022 (bioRxiv).

Kleinhadersdorf Flur 5068 (J-Z6046) — a man who lived between 5500 and 4775 BC in the Middle Neolithic era. His remains were found in the region now known as Kleinhadersdorf Flur Marchleiten, Poysdorf, Austria. He belonged to the cultural group "Linear Pottery Culture." His direct maternal line belongs to mitochondrial haplogroup T2b23. Source: I5068 from Mathieson et al. 2018.

An archaeological culture of the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic in Iran, Iraq and Central Asia. Existed 18–8 thousand years ago. Replaces the Baradostian culture from which it possibly evolved. Named after finds in Zarzi Cave, Iraqi Kurdistan. The Shanidar Cave site is also known.

Up to 20% of finds consist of microlithic products, which take the form of short asymmetric flint flakes in the shape of triangles and trapezoids with holes for attachment. The culture has much in common with the neighboring Kebaran culture in the Levant and in its late period coexists with the Natufian, but is not identical to it. Although sites are scattered at considerable distances from each other, they are very rare, and population density appears to have been low. The bearers followed a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Hunting objects: deer, wild ass and goats. Remains of domestic dogs, as well as bows and arrows, have been found at the sites. Presumably a predecessor of later cultures of eastern Iran.


Materials:

The Zarzian in the Context of the Epipaleolithic Middle East. Olszewski 2011