25th century BC
Catacomb cultural-historical community — a Middle Bronze Age ethnocultural union (25th-20th centuries BC), widespread in the steppe and forest-steppe zone from the Urals and the North Caucasus to the lower reaches of the Danube. It was initially identified as an archaeological culture in 1901-1903 by V. A. Gorodtsov. Later, researchers identified local variants, which were distinguished as independent archaeological cultures. The concept of "Catacomb cultural-historical community" was introduced into scholarly circulation. It is represented by sites of the Early Catacomb (25th-23rd centuries BC), Donetsk (23rd-20th centuries BC), Kharkov-Voronezh or Middle Don (28th/27th-20th centuries BC), and Ingul Catacomb cultures (28th-20th centuries BC).
Research history
The discoverer of the Catacomb culture is V. A. Gorodtsov, who in 1901-1903, during his study of kurgan antiquities on the Seversky Donets, drew attention to burials in catacombs — a specific burial structure consisting of a vertical shaft (entrance pit), a dromos (corridor-like passage), and a burial chamber (burial place). In accordance with the structural features of the burial structure, the culture he identified was named Catacomb. Later, researchers drew attention to the heterogeneity of Catacomb sites in different territories, which contributed to the identification of a number of local variants in the 1950s-1960s. With the accumulation of archaeological material, prerequisites were created for understanding local variants as independent archaeological cultures within a single Catacomb cultural-historical community, which was ultimately done in the early 1970s by researchers L. S. Klein and O. G. Shaposhnikova.
Origin of the Catacomb community
The problem of the origin of the Catacomb culture (later the Catacomb cultural-historical community) was raised at the beginning of the 20th century by V. A. Gorodtsov, almost immediately after the discovery of under-kurgan burials in catacombs on the Seversky Donets, but it still remains debatable. Researchers discuss autochthonous and migration theories of the origin of the Catacomb community tribes. Proponents of the autochthonous theory believe that the appearance of the Catacomb community should be associated with the further development of the local Yamnaya population. Supporters of the migration theory suggest that the Catacomb tribes genetically trace back to the Yamnaya, but emerged under the strong migratory influence of populations from the Ciscaucasia.
Early Catacomb culture
The concepts of "Early Catacomb period" and "Early Catacomb culture" are widely used by researchers, although they do not have a clearly formulated status. During the Early Catacomb period, the burial rite in catacombs spread among the Yamnaya tribes, but these changes were not accompanied by a change in population. This is indicated by anthropological materials and the nature of material culture, which is still saturated with Yamnaya features. A certain coexistence of Late Yamnaya and Early Catacomb cultures is noted, with the subsequent dominance of the latter.
Economy type
The economy of the bearers of the Catacomb cultural-historical community was determined by the ecological conditions of the steppe and forest-steppe zones. Thus, in the steppe, pastoral or transhumance pastoralism of the nomadic type took root, based on the breeding of cattle and small livestock. In the forest-steppe, a model of pastoral or stall-fed pastoralism with a predominance of cattle and pigs in the herd spread. Grain grinders testify to flour-based food. Trade was conducted with the regions of the Caucasus and Western Asia.
Culture
The pottery (ceramics) of the Catacomb culture is handmade, predominantly with a flat bottom. Amphorae are mostly uniform: turnip-shaped with a cylindrical neck. The most common were pots and amphorae 15-20 cm high and small pots 10-12 cm high. Ornamentation was applied with a cord stamp (corded ware). In addition to pots, bowls, cups, and jugs are represented. Metal (copper) knives and awls are known. Stone and bronze axes, ornaments (plaques, beads, and bracelets), stone maces, and flint arrowheads are known. Spindle whorls were present, indicating the presence of textile clothing.
Various ornaments and amulets made of drilled deer teeth, fangs, and teeth of predatory animals were widespread. Bronze and silver spiral bent one-and-a-half-turn temple rings have been found; bronze pendants in the form of a cord with a loop and a knot; round, barrel-shaped, or biconical bronze beads; blue glass, white paste (paste is conventionally used to mean opaque glass), and reddish carnelian beads; spiral or tubular bronze beads; bone rings.
The Catacomb cultural-historical community is characterized by tribal settlements and low (up to 1 m) kurgan cemeteries without cremation. Wooden carts are found in burials.
A metallurgical center was located on the territory of Donbas. This is also confirmed by finds in Donetsk Catacomb burials of stone hammers, which were used for crushing ore before washing and smelting.
Ethnic affiliation
There is no reliable information regarding the ethnic affiliation of the bearers of the Catacomb culture. The autochthonous version of the origin of the Catacomb people derives this culture from the earlier Yamnaya culture. The Yamnaya culture, in turn, is identified by some researchers with the bearers of the ancestors of Indo-Iranian languages. L. S. Klein put forward a hypothesis that the Catacomb community represented an early stage of the cultures bearing Indo-Aryan languages.
Sources:
Ethnogenesis of the Abkhazians. D.A. Arshba, 2015
Catacomb cultural-historical community — a Middle Bronze Age ethnocultural union (25th-20th centuries BC), widespread in the steppe and forest-steppe zone from the Urals and the North Caucasus to the lower reaches of the Danube. It was initially identified as an archaeological culture in 1901-1903 by V. A. Gorodtsov. Later, researchers identified local variants, which were distinguished as independent archaeological cultures. The concept of "Catacomb cultural-historical community" was introduced into scholarly circulation. It is represented by sites of the Early Catacomb (25th-23rd centuries BC), Donetsk (23rd-20th centuries BC), Kharkov-Voronezh or Middle Don (28th/27th-20th centuries BC), and Ingul Catacomb cultures (28th-20th centuries BC).
Research history
The discoverer of the Catacomb culture is V. A. Gorodtsov, who in 1901-1903, during his study of kurgan antiquities on the Seversky Donets, drew attention to burials in catacombs — a specific burial structure consisting of a vertical shaft (entrance pit), a dromos (corridor-like passage), and a burial chamber (burial place). In accordance with the structural features of the burial structure, the culture he identified was named Catacomb. Later, researchers drew attention to the heterogeneity of Catacomb sites in different territories, which contributed to the identification of a number of local variants in the 1950s-1960s. With the accumulation of archaeological material, prerequisites were created for understanding local variants as independent archaeological cultures within a single Catacomb cultural-historical community, which was ultimately done in the early 1970s by researchers L. S. Klein and O. G. Shaposhnikova.
Origin of the Catacomb community
The problem of the origin of the Catacomb culture (later the Catacomb cultural-historical community) was raised at the beginning of the 20th century by V. A. Gorodtsov, almost immediately after the discovery of under-kurgan burials in catacombs on the Seversky Donets, but it still remains debatable. Researchers discuss autochthonous and migration theories of the origin of the Catacomb community tribes. Proponents of the autochthonous theory believe that the appearance of the Catacomb community should be associated with the further development of the local Yamnaya population. Supporters of the migration theory suggest that the Catacomb tribes genetically trace back to the Yamnaya, but emerged under the strong migratory influence of populations from the Ciscaucasia.
Early Catacomb culture
The concepts of "Early Catacomb period" and "Early Catacomb culture" are widely used by researchers, although they do not have a clearly formulated status. During the Early Catacomb period, the burial rite in catacombs spread among the Yamnaya tribes, but these changes were not accompanied by a change in population. This is indicated by anthropological materials and the nature of material culture, which is still saturated with Yamnaya features. A certain coexistence of Late Yamnaya and Early Catacomb cultures is noted, with the subsequent dominance of the latter.
Economy type
The economy of the bearers of the Catacomb cultural-historical community was determined by the ecological conditions of the steppe and forest-steppe zones. Thus, in the steppe, pastoral or transhumance pastoralism of the nomadic type took root, based on the breeding of cattle and small livestock. In the forest-steppe, a model of pastoral or stall-fed pastoralism with a predominance of cattle and pigs in the herd spread. Grain grinders testify to flour-based food. Trade was conducted with the regions of the Caucasus and Western Asia.
Culture
The pottery (ceramics) of the Catacomb culture is handmade, predominantly with a flat bottom. Amphorae are mostly uniform: turnip-shaped with a cylindrical neck. The most common were pots and amphorae 15-20 cm high and small pots 10-12 cm high. Ornamentation was applied with a cord stamp (corded ware). In addition to pots, bowls, cups, and jugs are represented. Metal (copper) knives and awls are known. Stone and bronze axes, ornaments (plaques, beads, and bracelets), stone maces, and flint arrowheads are known. Spindle whorls were present, indicating the presence of textile clothing.
Various ornaments and amulets made of drilled deer teeth, fangs, and teeth of predatory animals were widespread. Bronze and silver spiral bent one-and-a-half-turn temple rings have been found; bronze pendants in the form of a cord with a loop and a knot; round, barrel-shaped, or biconical bronze beads; blue glass, white paste (paste is conventionally used to mean opaque glass), and reddish carnelian beads; spiral or tubular bronze beads; bone rings.
The Catacomb cultural-historical community is characterized by tribal settlements and low (up to 1 m) kurgan cemeteries without cremation. Wooden carts are found in burials.
A metallurgical center was located on the territory of Donbas. This is also confirmed by finds in Donetsk Catacomb burials of stone hammers, which were used for crushing ore before washing and smelting.
Ethnic affiliation
There is no reliable information regarding the ethnic affiliation of the bearers of the Catacomb culture. The autochthonous version of the origin of the Catacomb people derives this culture from the earlier Yamnaya culture. The Yamnaya culture, in turn, is identified by some researchers with the bearers of the ancestors of Indo-Iranian languages. L. S. Klein put forward a hypothesis that the Catacomb community represented an early stage of the cultures bearing Indo-Aryan languages.
Sources:
Ethnogenesis of the Abkhazians. D.A. Arshba, 2015
3000–2000 BC. Abashevo culture.