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16th century BC

Colchian culture — the culture belongs to the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, roughly dated to the period from the 16th to the 7th centuries BC.

More precise dating of the Colchian culture sites remains debatable.

There is the so-called "Long periodization," which was substantiated by D. L. Koridze (1965), who paid more attention to hoards and divided the culture into six chronological periods (16th-14th, 13th-12th, 12th-11th, 11th-10th, 10th-8th, 8th-7th centuries BC). Most of the "classical" Colchian hoards with ornamented axes and rich inventory were dated within the broad framework of the 10th-8th centuries BC, and only the hoards from Laylashi, Tsageri, and Tskhinvali were assigned to the 11th-10th centuries BC. The drawback of this approach is that the sites of the Colchian culture from its flourishing period remained practically outside the framework of D. L. Koridze's periodization, receiving a very broad dating.

There is the so-called "Short periodization" — substantiated by Yu. N. Voronov (1980), who, unlike D. L. Koridze, focused primarily on burial complexes. "The most ancient of the burial complexes of the Colchian culture on the territory of Abkhazia" he dated to the first half of the 8th century BC. The culture was divided into three periods (second half of the 8th-7th, end of the 7th — first half of the 4th, second half of the 4th-1st centuries BC).

This "short" chronology was supported by L. N. Pantskhava (1986, 1988), T. K. Mikeladze (1990), E. M. Gogadze (1984), and D. B. Apakidze (1991), who dated most of the "classical" Colchian complexes within the 8th-6th centuries BC.

Most scholars, with the exception of Yu. N. Voronov, did not deny the formation of the Colchian culture in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.

Sites and artifacts

The Colchian culture is represented by cemeteries, settlements, and hoards.

Scholars have investigated the following complexes of sites:
Eshera (1934), Gagra (1971), Kulanurkhva (1969), Zvandripsh (1969), Verkhnyaya Eshera (1953), Kulanurkhva-1, Kulanurkhva-6, 7, Galsky hoard, Nizhnyaya Eshera (1930), Bambora (1940), Primorskoye, Gudauta (1960), Kulanurkhva-11, Krasny Mayak-2, 4, Achandara (1970), Nizhnyaya Eshera (1969), Krasny Mayak-62, 93, Kulanurkhva-8, 9, Krasny Mayak-11, 17, Kulanurkhva-4, 5, Kulanurkhva-10, Krasny Mayak-07, Kulanurkhva-3, and others.

Scholars have investigated the following hoards, arranged chronologically according to D. L. Koridze:
18th-16th centuries — Ureki
16th-14th centuries — Kvishara, Pilenkovo, Gagra, Pitsunda, Lykhny, Erge, Chorokhi, Kobuleti, Laylashi, Erge (Zemo-Kocho), Melekeduri, Dimi, Partskhanakanevi, Gori;
13th-12th centuries — Zeniti (2 finds of 1935), Sasireti, Digomi, Ordu, Ude;
12th-11th centuries — Vakijvari, Shroma, Artvin, Kara-dere, Chaisubani, Bobokvati, Zeniti (1926), Tsikhisdziri-Sameba, Makvaneti, Opshkviti, Sakara, Zemo-Simoneti, Darkveti, Laylashi (SHM), Telovani;
9th-10th centuries — Erge, Laylashi, Tskhinvali, Akhalkalaki, Bezhatubani, Tsageri, Guturi, Didi Vani, Bugeuli, Tkhmori, Tagiloni;
10th-8th centuries — Okureshi, Kvishara, Lukhvano, Perevi, Tsoisi, Lesichine, Surmushi, Khevi, Sinatle, Mekhchis-Tsikhe, Odjoli, Chala, Jvari, Dgnorisa, Kalvata, vicinity of Batumi (1914), Tola, Sapudzvreb;
8th-7th centuries — Ureki (Kaprovina), Bzvani, Shuakhevi, Kurzu.

Archaeologists have identified three variants (localizations) of the culture's artifacts:
— Bzyb (Bzyb Abkhazia) (represented by burial sites (individual burials)).
— Mingrelian (including Abzhua Abkhazia, Samurzakan, Mingrelia, Guria) (represented by hoards and burial sites (collective burials — "grave pits")).
— Lechkhumi-Imeretian (represented exclusively by hoards).

The excavated objects provided a diverse bronze inventory, among which individual iron items are found. Some bronze items are covered with images of animals made by embossing and engraving.

Also discovered were:
— three-dimensional figurines of animals and anthropomorphic sculptural images.
— bronze human figurines (male deities with emphasized sexual characteristics).

Established centers of metal processing (local fragments of the culture):
— Chorokhi River basin, Abkhazia
— Racha Range area
— Lechkhumi Range area

Most scholars note that the Colchian culture has much in common with the Koban culture, especially in terms of bronze casting artifacts.

Lifestyle and economy

The bearers of the Colchian culture lived in patriarchal-clan communities (there are signs of property differentiation).

Main occupations:
— agriculture
— pastoralism
— metallurgy

Mapping of found artifacts ("pectorals," etc.) showed the main routes of military campaigns passing through the passes between Karachay-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, and Abkhazia (Klukhorsky and Donguz-Orunbashi), as well as North Ossetia and Racha (Gebeaftsag and Gurdziaftsag).

Scholars exclude the possibility of movement of any significant groups of Cimmerians and Scythians along the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, since there are few vivid archaeological evidence of inter-tribal contacts known here.


Cultures of 1500 BC

1500 BC

States:
1 – Egypt (territory: 1,079,000 sq. km, population – 8,000,000, capital – Men-nefer, ruler – Pharaoh Thutmose III).
2 – Amurru (confederation of tribes).
3 – Ashtata.
4 – Yamhad (territory: 14,000 sq. km, capital – Aleppo, ruler – Indrimi).
5 – Kassite Babylonia (territory: 354,000 sq. km, population – 3,000,000, capital – Babylon, ruler – lugal Burna-Buriash I).
6 – Sealand (territory: 77,000 sq. km, population – 300,000).
7 – Chaldea (Semitic Arabic-speaking tribes from Central Arabia).
8 – Magan (relict of Dravidian tribes that once inhabited all of Eastern and Northeastern Arabia).
9 – Elam (territory: 117,000 sq. km, capital – Susa, ruler – sukkal-mah Kuter-Nahhunte II).
10 – Ashur (territory: 29,000 sq. km, population – 200,000, capital – Ashur, ruler – Puzur-Ashur III). Strongly dependent on Hanigalbat.
11 – Hanigalbat – confederation of kingdoms (Hurrians led by an Aryan dynasty of Mitanni) (territory: 353,000 sq. km, population – 1,500,000, ruler – Shuttarna I).
12 – Kizzuwatna – ethnically a mixture of Hurrians and incoming Luwians (territory: 74,000 sq. km, capital – Kummanni, ruler – Isputahsu).
13 – Hapalla.
14 – Arzawa (Luwians).
15 – Millawanda (although there is a hypothesis that Millawanda is identical to later Miletus).
16 – Lukka (probably pre-Indo-European population).
17 – Hittites (territory: 185,000 sq. km, population – 250,000, capital – Hattusa, ruler – tabarna Tahurwaili).
Kaskian tribes (18-21), who lived in Asia Minor before the arrival of the Hitto-Luwians and are related to modern Adyghe and Abkhazians.
18 – Sukhma
19 – Haysa
20 – Halila
21 – Ihhupita
22 – Pala – kingdom of a people related to the Hittites.
23 – Troy (territory: 121,000 sq. km, capital – Troy (Wilusa)).
24 – Crete – ethnically newcomers from Asia Minor related to the pre-Hittite population – the Hattians (territory: 18,000 sq. km, population – 1,000,000, capital – Knossos).
25 – Achaean Greece – city-states on the eve of the Santorini catastrophe (territory: 58,000 sq. km, population – 500,000).

Tribal unions:
Iberians and other descendants of the Bell Beaker culture expansion (26-41).
26 – El Argar culture (Iberian tribes).
27 – Rhône culture (Ligurian tribes).
28 – Nuragic culture (Sardinian tribes).
29 – Corsicans.
30 – Sicani.
31 – Armorican culture (possibly the tribes of the Osismii, who came from Britain and are related in origin to the tribes of the Wessex culture).
32 – Wessex culture.
33 – Food Vessel culture and other British cultures (the earliest yet non-Celticized Picts).
34 – Irish Bell Beaker cultures.
35 – Adlerberg culture.
36 – Únětice culture.
37 – Otomani culture.
38 – Pecica culture.
39 – Gârla Mare culture.
40 – Verbicioara culture.
41 – other Bell Beaker cultures (possibly the tribes of the Osismii).

Chassey-Capsian tribes (42-46)
42 – SUM culture – Seine-Marne-Oise.
43 – Lake dwelling culture.
44 – Polada culture.
45 – Remedello-Terramare cultures (the earliest Rhaeto-Etruscans, not yet influenced by Asia Minor influences).
46 – Artenacian culture.

Japhetic tribes of the Mediterranean (47-49).
47 – Siculi.
48 – South Italian cultures.
49 – Bubanj-Hum and other Balkan cultures, pushed southwest by migrations of Iberians and Indo-Europeans. In Epirus at this time one of the Pelasgian tribes was based (Pelasgians – a non-Indo-European tribe of the Cycladic culture).

Japhetic tribes of the Caucasus (50-57).
50 – Colchian culture (initially Japhetic, but after the 12th century BC, assimilation of the primary Colchians by ancient Georgian tribes occurs).
51 – Central Caucasian culture – heir of the Koban culture.
52 – Kayakent-Khorochoev culture (ancient Dagestani tribes, and possibly the earliest Khazars).
53 – Kuban culture (ancient Adyghe tribes).
54 – North Caucasian culture.
55 – Kizil-Koba culture (Tauri).
56 – Catacomb culture (essentially a remnant of the Yamnaya tribes on their homeland, heavily assimilated by Caucasian tribes coming from the south during the heyday of the Maykop civilization).
57 – Balanovo culture (whose tribes advanced far north and came under strong influence of the Fatyanovo and Abashevo tribes of Central Russia, but preserved the racial type that can be traced in the region until the 9th century BC).

Indo-European tribes
58 – Single Grave culture (the earliest branch of the Germanic peoples).
Baltic tribes (59-66)
59 – Saxo-Thuringian culture.
60 – Oder culture.
61 – Złota culture.
62 – Baltic culture.
63 – Middle Dnieper culture.
64 – Fatyanovo culture.
65 – Boat Axe culture of Finland.
66 – Boat Axe culture of Sweden.
67 – Tumulus culture (possibly the tribes of the Veneti).
68 – Komarov culture (originates from the Corded Ware cultures of the north and serves as a link between these cultures and the Tumulus culture, but post-Trypillian influences are also strong; possibly the earliest Slavs).

Ancient Yamnaya tribes (remnants of the once vast Yamnaya community) (69-73)
69 – Monteoru culture (possibly ancient Thracian tribes).
70 – Tei culture.
71 – Maryanovskaya culture.
72 – Witenberg culture.
73 – Füzesabony culture.
74 – Dorian tribes of the Greeks.
75 – Phrygian tribes.

Post-Trypillian tribes (Trypillia – initially a Japhetic civilization, in the last period of its existence assimilated by Yamnaya tribes) (76-79).
76 – Subcarpathian culture.
77 – Strzyżów culture.
78 – Multi-roller pottery culture.
79 – Kostish culture.

Iranian tribes (80-82)
80 – Abashevo culture.
81 – Pozdnyakovo culture (originating from Abashevo).
82 – Sapalli culture (Indo-Iranian tribes related to Grey Ware).
83 – Poltavka culture (one of the branches of the Ancient Yamnaya community, ancestors of the Srubnaya tribes of the Cimmerians).

Tocharian tribes (84-87)
84 – Andronovo cultural community.
85 – Tazabagyab culture.
86 – Tarim mummies culture.
87 – Cherkaskul culture.
88 – Grey Ware culture (Indo-Aryan tribes).

Kartvelian tribes (89-91)
89 – Samtavro culture.
90 – Trialeti culture.
91 – Eastern Caucasian culture.

Dravidian tribes
92 – Dashla culture.
93 – Harappan cultures.

Finnic tribes (94-99)
94 – Asbestos ware culture.
95 – Porous ware culture.
96 – Textile ware culture.
97 – Choinovtin culture.
98 – Kiukainen culture.
99 – Prikazan culture.

Samoyedic tribes (100-102)
100 – Samus culture.
101 – Krotovo culture.
102 – Sartynia culture.

Semitic tribes (103-107)
103 – Midian.
104 – Suti tribes.
105 – Aramean tribes.
106 – various Arab tribes.
107 – Ethio-Semitic tribes.

Bronze production in 1500 BC:
Egypt – 350 tons.
Mesopotamia – 1,400 tons.


Sources:

Ethnogenesis of the Abkhazians. D.A. Arshba, 2015